Political Philosophers & Origins of the New Nation

Ecclesia:

• Main democratic institution in ancient Athens

• All male citizens over the age of 18 were eligible to participate, making decisions on war, foreign policy, laws, and more.

• Early model of direct democracy where citizens voted on major issues

Archons:

• High-ranking officials in Athenian government, initially from noble families

• The position of Archon evolved over time, and eventually, they were selected by lot, representing a move toward more democratic practices.

• There were nine archons each year, including the Eponymous Archon (head of state) and the Polemarch (military leader).

Dikasteria:

• The dikasteria were courts where citizens acted as jurors

• Trials in Athens were a form of direct justice, with large juries of hundreds or even thousands of citizens who voted on legal disputes.

• Democratic engagement

Democracy vs. Republic

Democracy: In a direct democracy, people vote on laws and policies themselves (like in Athens). In a representative democracy, citizens elect representatives who make decisions on their behalf (as in modern-day United States).

Republic: A republic is different as it emphasizes the protection of minority rights through a system of laws and a constitution. Elected officials are responsible for the people, but they have to abide by a legal framework designed to protect individual rights from the "tyranny of the majority." The Roman Republic is an early example, and the U.S. is a modern example of a constitutional republic.

Consuls/Senate

Consuls: Two consuls were elected each year by the citizens to serve as the executive leaders of the government. They held significant power, including leading the army and overseeing the administration of the law. However, they had limited terms and were expected to work in tandem, acting as a check on each other's power.

Senate: The Senate in Rome was initially an advisory body made of aristocrats (patricians). Over time, it gained more influence, controlling finances, foreign policy, and advising consuls. Although it was not an elected body and largely represented the elite, it played a key role in shaping the Roman Republic.

Autocracy/Oligarchy

Autocracy (Self-Rule): An autocracy is a government ruled by a single individual with absolute power. Historical examples include monarchies where kings or emperors wielded unlimited power. A modern example of an autocratic system is a dictatorship.

Oligarchy (Few to rule): Oligarchy refers to a government controlled by a small, elite group of individuals. Oligarchies can be based on wealth, military control, or aristocracy. Ancient Sparta was a mix of oligarchy and monarchy, with two kings and a council of elders controlling the government.

Patricians/Plebeians

Patricians: The Patricians were the aristocratic class in ancient Rome, descending from the original families that founded the city. They held most of the political power early in the Republic and controlled key positions in government and religious institutions.

Plebeians: The Plebeians were the common people of Rome, including farmers, craftsmen, and traders. They had limited political power initially, but over time they fought for and gained greater rights, including representation through the office of Tribune, which was created to protect plebeian interests from patrician dominance.

Fears about direct (pure) democracy

Direct democracy, where people vote on laws themselves rather than electing representatives, was feared because of the potential for mob rule or decision-making based on emotion rather than reason.

The End of Athenian Democracy/The Roman Republic

Athenian Democracy: Athenian democracy began to decline due to several factors, including external threats (like the Peloponnesian War with Sparta) and internal strife, such as the rise of demagogues who manipulated public opinion. The democracy eventually fell when Athens was conquered by Macedon under Philip II and Alexander the Great.

Roman Republic: The Roman Republic collapsed due to a combination of internal political corruption, economic inequality, and military conflicts. Figures like Julius Caesar and Augustus (Caesar's adopted heir) contributed to the end of the Republic by consolidating power and moving toward the autocratic rule of the Roman Empire.

Aristotle/Thomas Hobbes/John Locke – Major Points, State of Nature & Role of Government

Aristotle: Aristotle favored a constitutional government where law ruled and citizens shared power. He believed that humans are naturally social and political beings. He warned against both extreme democracy (mob rule) and tyranny, advocating for a balance of power through a mixed constitution.

Thomas Hobbes: In his work Leviathan, Hobbes described the state of nature as a brutal, lawless condition where human life was "nasty, brutish, and short." To escape this, people entered into a social contract, surrendering some of their freedoms to a strong ruler (sovereign) in exchange for security and order.

John Locke: Locke had a much more optimistic view of the state of nature, believing that people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property. In his theory of government, the role of the state is to protect these natural rights. If the government fails to do so, the people have the right to overthrow it. Locke's ideas greatly influenced the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution.

English Common Law

Common Law refers to a legal system that is based on court decisions and precedents rather than written statutes. It evolved in medieval England, where decisions made by judges in individual cases formed the basis for future rulings. Over time, these rulings became standardized into what we know as common law, which influenced legal systems in many other countries, including the U.S.

Magna Carta

The Magna Carta, signed in 1215, was a landmark document that established the principle that even the king was subject to the law. It protected certain rights of English barons and set the precedent for future constitutional limits on the powers of the monarchy. It influenced the development of modern democratic principles like due process and the right to a fair trial.

Glorious Revolution & English Bill of Rights

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 was a bloodless overthrow of King James II of England, replaced by William and Mary. This event was significant because it limited the powers of the monarchy and strengthened Parliament.

The English Bill of Rights (1689) codified these changes, establishing parliamentary supremacy, the right to regular elections, free speech in Parliament, and certain protections for citizens, like the right to petition the king and protection from cruel and unusual punishment.

Virginia House of Burgesses

Founded in 1619, the Virginia House of Burgesses was the first elected legislative body in the American colonies. It marked the beginning of representative government in what would later become the United States. Colonists used this institution to pass laws and manage local affairs, laying the groundwork for democratic governance.

Proclamation of 1763

After the French and Indian War, Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, forbidding American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The goal was to prevent conflicts with Native Americans, but colonists, eager for new land, resented this restriction, contributing to tensions with Britain.

Sugar Act

The Sugar Act (1764) imposed taxes on sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from non-British sources. This was part of Britain's effort to raise revenue to pay for debts from the French and Indian War. Colonists saw it as an unfair tax since they had no representation in Parliament, sparking early resistance.

Stamp Act/Stamp Act Congress

The Stamp Act (1765) was one of the first direct taxes imposed on the American colonies, requiring a tax stamp on all printed materials. It caused widespread outrage, leading to protests and the formation of the Stamp Act Congress, where delegates from various colonies met to petition for its repeal. This was an early example of colonial unity against British taxation.

Committees of Correspondence

These were shadow governments formed by American patriots to facilitate communication between the colonies in the lead-up to the Revolution. They coordinated resistance to British policies, spreading information and organizing boycotts and protests, fostering a sense of shared colonial identity

.2nd Continental Congress

The Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775, shortly after the outbreak of fighting between British troops and colonial militias at Lexington and Concord. The Congress assumed the role of the de facto national government for the American colonies during the Revolutionary War.

Key actions included:

• Appointing George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.

  • Issuing the Olive Branch Petition in a final attempt to avoid war with Britain (though it was rejected by King George III).

  • Organizing war efforts, securing alliances, and ultimately declaring independence from Britain through the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

It continued to serve throughout the war, managing diplomatic efforts (such as securing French aid) and acting as the wartime government.

Townshend Acts

The Townshend Acts were a series of laws passed by the British Parliament in 1767, named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer. These laws imposed duties (taxes) on imported goods such as glass, paper, paint, lead, and tea.

Unlike the earlier Stamp Act, which was a direct tax, the Townshend duties were considered indirect taxes. However, they still provoked widespread anger in the colonies because they were seen as a violation of the principle of no taxation without representation.

The revenue from these taxes was used to pay British officials in the colonies, making them less dependent on colonial governments, which increased colonial fears of losing self-governance.

The colonial response included organized boycotts of British goods, and the tension contributed to the eventual outbreak of the American Revolution.

Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts)

The Intolerable Acts (1774), known as the Coercive Acts in Britain, were a series of punitive laws passed in response to the Boston Tea Party. The British government wanted to assert control and discipline Massachusetts, but these laws had the opposite effect, galvanizing colonial resistance.

Key provisions of the Intolerable Acts included:

• The Boston Port Act: Closed Boston Harbor until the tea destroyed during the Boston Tea Party was paid for.

  • The Massachusetts Government Act: Gave the British-appointed governor more power and reduced the role of town meetings and colonial self-government.

  • The Administration of Justice Act: Allowed British officials accused of crimes in the colonies to be tried in Britain, protecting them from colonial justice.

  • The Quartering Act: Required colonies to provide housing and supplies for British troops.

These acts united the colonies in opposition to Britain, and they played a significant role in the formation of the First Continental Congress.

Olive Branch Petition

The Olive Branch Petition was drafted by the Second Continental Congress in July 1775, after the fighting had already begun between colonial militias and British forces. It represented the colonists' last attempt to avoid a full-scale war.

The petition affirmed colonial loyalty to the British crown and sought a peaceful resolution, asking King George III to intervene and address colonial grievances regarding taxation and governance.

However, King George III rejected the petition, declaring the colonies to be in open rebellion. This rejection pushed the colonies closer to declaring independence.

Common Sense

Common Sense is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 that argued passionately for American independence from Britain. It is one of the most influential pieces of political writing in American history.

Paine used plain language to reach a broad audience, making complex political ideas accessible to common colonists. His arguments included:

• The idea that monarchy was an illegitimate form of government and that kings, especially King George III, were tyrants.

  • That America had no need to remain connected to Britain, as the colonies were large and economically viable enough to survive independently.

  • He criticized the idea of hereditary succession, where political power was passed down through family lines, arguing it was illogical and unfair.

Paine’s Common Sense shifted public opinion in favor of independence and inspired many to join the revolutionary cause.

Declaration of Independence – Main Points/Influence/Unalienable Rights

Main Points: Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence outlines the American colonies' reasons for separating from Britain.

• The document starts with a preamble explaining the philosophical justification for independence, notably that people have unalienable rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

  • The next section lists grievances against King George III, including unjust taxation, the dissolution of colonial legislatures, and the imposition of standing armies without consent.

  • Finally, it asserts that the colonies are free and independent states, breaking all political ties with Britain.

Influence: The Declaration was heavily influenced by John Locke’s philosophy, particularly his theory of natural rights and the idea that governments exist to protect these rights. If a government fails to protect these rights, Locke argued, the people have the right to overthrow it.

• The Declaration also borrowed from Enlightenment ideas, emphasizing reason, liberty, and self-determination.

Unalienable Rights: Jefferson declared that all men have inherent rights that cannot be taken away or given up. These unalienable rights are natural rights derived from human nature, not from government. The three key rights mentioned in the Declaration are:

• Life: The right to exist and be free from threats to one’s life.

  • Liberty: The right to freedom from oppressive restrictions on one’s behavior or actions.

  • Pursuit of Happiness: The right to pursue one's personal well-being and fulfillment as long as it does not infringe upon the rights of others.