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ap lang everythings an argument
Chapter 1: Everything is An Argument
Summarize the concept presented in the opening paragraphs. How is everything considered an argument? Be sure to provide specific examples.
Everything is considered to be an argument because every piece of written, oral, or visual text displays a perspective (even if it was not made with the purpose of changing how others go about their lives). For example, in the excerpt from Dave Barry in his book Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway, he argues what he believes an author who would write a somewhat sufficient book on the United States government would do (spend time in the capital of the country). He also humorously argues that his book doesn’t meet that standard, so the book may not be satisfactory.
What does the word nuanced mean on page 4, and what is that sentence communicating?
The word nuanced as used on page 4, expresses that everything people do on a daily basis can create a complex argument of who they are and what they believe. This also means that based on one’s daily activities, there can be many different subtle ideas expressed about them.
Study the 2 images presented on page 6. Next, read the paragraph below the briefly state the claim you believe that each image is making along with a rationale for why you believe the images are communicating these claims.
I believe that the top image (with the peace symbol, Earth, heart, and crossed out “W”) communicates the idea that peace, a green Earth, and love can not be achieved with President George W. Bush. It also shows that if he were to become the president, he wouldn’t have a good relationship with other countries around the world or maintain qualities of peace of love since the red square beside these qualities has a “W” for his middle initial crossed out.
The image below it (including the cowboy hat with the letter W on it and a lasso around the mostly red United States), must show the opposite of the previous image, as this president was part of the Republican Party, and the cowboy hat represents him (since it has his middle initial) seems to have a hold of the country with most of the country seeming to vote for his party within the lasso. I believe that this image clearly supports George W. Bush to be the president as the picture of the United States shows what parts of the country voted for either party and since most of the country is shown in the color Bush would’ve been running in, it displays that most of the country supports him.
Define suasion.
Suasion is the action of convincing someone or a group of people of a truth that the speaker already knows of.
What are the different purposes for arguing? Which is the most common? Where is it most often utilized?
Writers may argue with the purpose of creating a point to win or to invite others to explore by informing or convincing them to make decisions, or even to meditate. The most common purpose is to make a point to win, utilized in areas like politics (between candidates running for a position in office), in business (between two contenders who aim to sell more of their product compared to their competitors), and even in court (with two lawyers aiming to win against the other to the judge).
Explain the difference between arguments to convince and arguments to persuade.
Arguments to convince try to find a truth to an issue with logical reasoning, whereas arguments to persuade start with the writer knowing their truth and wanting to change other people’s beliefs to theirs.
In an academic argument, which do you use?
In an academic setting, it is best to argue to convince as it uses evidence to support the claim and find the truth about a subject, while arguments to persuade are not ideal as they assume that the speaker already knows the truth without displaying much reasoning.
Summarize the purpose of the Rogerian style of argument.
The Rogerian style of argument, by Carl Rogers, has the goal of finding a middle ground between two ends of an argument. It is meant to not be hostile, but rather to find what they have in common to support both sides.
How are arguments used to inform an audience? Provide examples of informative arguments.
Arguments can be used to inform an audience about something they weren’t knowledgeable about. This can be obvious to persuade, such as marketing a new product to customers, or political campaigns informing voters on candidates. It can also be subtle such as a sign on the street.
What is an argument to explore?
An argument to explore is one that typically doesn’t have an opponent unless there is a confusing trend. These arguments claim that there is a problem that needs to be solved-whether that solution is proposed in the writing, or if the reader needs to take action.
Briefly explain an argument to make a decision. Provide an example of your own to demonstrate your understanding.
Arguments to make decisions can be a result of exploratory arguments since they can argue for a certain solution when needing to make an important decision. For example, one can argue for the most beneficial classes to take in their next year of high school, based on what they want to do after high school and the rigor of classes they can handle and are interested in, by asking their friends who have taken those classes.
Summarize the concept of an argument to meditate or pray. What is necessary for many of these types of arguments to be clearly communicated?
The idea of an argument in the form of meditating or praying is that one believes that something will happen to allow them to reach a peaceful state. It doesn’t have to be formally written, as long as it evokes meditative thoughts from the audience. It is necessary to have a purpose with context accessible to their audience for these arguments to be properly understood.
How does Aristotle communicate the necessity of time in relation to an argument?
Aristotle expresses the importance of time to an argument by suggesting that its purpose can be classified by whether it regards the past, present, or future (or even multiple of these at the same time).
What is a forensic argument? (summarize the first paragraph)
Forensic arguments are ones that happened in the past and can be seen in many fields such as government and business. An example of this is when debates occur between lawyers over what had happened during criminal cases.
List 2 examples of forensic arguments given.
The first example is from a letter to the editor of the Atlantic Monthly by Captain David J. Morris, stating that Robert Bryce’s article was wrong about the gas consumption of the United States military in Iraq. Bryce replies to the letter with evidence to back his claim of what had happened in the past.
The other example provided is about the leader of an organization to take down affirmative action programs, Ward Connerly. Carl Villarreal, the author of the article “Connerly Is an Enemy of Civil Rights” writes on how in the past, there were African Americans who spoke out against letting themselves vote-an occasion in the past that gives context to how Connerly, a black man, is against the Civil Rights Movement.
What is a deliberative argument? What types of evidence do they draw upon to make their case?
A deliberative argument is one that would occur in the future. This regards deliberate bodies (for example, a legislature), as they must argue to create laws for the future. To make their case, they depend on forensic arguments, taking evidence from prior experiences, while also making predictions of what will happen.
What are arguments about the present called, and what do they do? What types of speeches or writings are often categorized as arguments about the present?
Epideictic or ceremonial arguments are ones about the present, and they aim to debate current values contended in society. This can be in the form of speeches on public occasions, like graduation speeches, inaugural addresses, and sermons.
Summarize the argument Latisha Chisolm is trying to make.
Latisha Chisolm in this excerpt argues on the contemporary issue of what rapping values now that Tupac Shakur is no longer there. She explains that the morals she had seen in Tupac’s raps included representing the Black community with honor. Nowadays, she notices that it has disappeared and that rappers today would rather chase money instead.
What is Statis Theory and what 4 questions does it ask?
Status Theory classifies arguments by the types of problems they address. The questions this theory asks are: did something happen, what’s its nature, what’s its quality, and what should be done about it?
What considerations need to be made for the cultural context of arguments?
It is important to understand that all cultures can have different norms, so one has to be considerate of how they argue while being respectful to other cultures. Just because one’s behavior is seen as right to them, it doesn’t necessarily mean that to others, which is crucial to understand when properly arguing with someone of a different cultural background.
What is an argument of fact? What is its purpose?
Claims that can be supported or opposed with evidence are an argument of fact. Its purpose is to establish a fact, although that can be difficult to figure out the operational definition to use scientific data.
What is an argument of definition? What are some current arguments of definition we have today?
An argument of definition deals with whether a thing or doing would fit in a category, or be classified as something more controversial. A word may have a gray area with its meaning, making it harder to decide what it should mean in a scenario. Current arguments of definition include whether a fetus is a human, leading to the question of whether abortion is considered murder or a human. Based on one’s definition of a fetus, one’s answer to these questions can vary.
Based on page 25, summarize what an argument of evaluation is.
Arguments of evaluation are about the quality of a certain object in comparison to another. It is a common argument that displays a lot about one’s values as they criticize an item’s worth. An example of this is someone deciding what qualities make a good leader, like Rosa Parks when she determined that Martin Luther King Jr. was a good leader based on his qualities such as perseverance.
What is a proposal argument?
A proposal argument is related to the stasis question of “What actions should be taken?” as it presents a solution to a problem. Once an unideal condition has been proven to exist, it allows people to think of ways to address the problem, allowing them to figure out an answer to this stasis question.
Summarize the example questions used to demonstrate the Statis Theory in relation to global warming. What questions are asked? How is the topic explored in response to these questions?
The question “Did something happen?” from the stasis theory can be applied to global warming by considering whether this condition exists on the planet. Many scientists agree that it does exist in this scenario, while others who have also researched come to a different conclusion. The next question, “What is the nature of the thing?” requires to look at the definition of global warming, another area contested by many scientists on whether it is caused by humans or a natural phenomenon. Then, questioning the quality of this leads to the discussion of how severely it is impacting the environment. Following this is the proposal argument, asking “What actions should be taken?” based on the conclusions of the previous questions, the idea of whether this phenomenon needs to have a solution is presented. Some who believe it is a naturally occurring process that isn’t affecting the planet would propose that there isn’t any need for a solution, while others who believe the opposite would research ways humans can slow the process they may have created.
What is an intended reader?
The intended readers of writing or speech are the group of people who the speaker wants to address, as they would find the work compelling, informing, or even persuading.
What is an invoked reader?
An invoked reader is someone who reads an argument with interest, even if they don’t fit the targeted audience and aren’t an intended reader. For example, these readers might look at letters or emails that weren’t meant to be read by them.
How can writing reach an unintended audience?
Writing can reach an unintended audience by not noticing who some of the “real” readers are. If a piece of writing includes personal pronouns and is written with only the intended audience in mind, then people who read it and don’t relate to the writing might feel offended by it.
Explain context and what needs to be considered when attempting to reach an audience.
When attempting to reach an audience, the author must let the audience know the context of what they are writing. This can range from specific contexts (such as the time and place the writing is set in) to more general contexts (like that of the local area with its values, culture, and linguistics).
Summarize the PATHOS section on page 38.
Pathos is the way a piece of literature can appeal to one’s emotions. For example, advertisements to get help for a group of people may use pathos by showing pictures of those people struggling to appeal to others' emotions so they can receive the help they need.
Summarize the ETHOS section on pages 39-40.
Ethos is the way a piece of writing can interest one’s reliability. This is commonly shown by displaying someone’s credibility when attempting to persuade an audience that what they are saying is worth considering based on demonstrating their knowledge and qualifications. It is also important for the speaker to be aware of the limitations of their argument so they can show that they really know what they are saying. By showing to one’s audience that they are knowledgeable in their subject and have good, shared values, they can earn the trust of their audience on what they want to say.
Summarize the LOGOS section on page 40-41.
Logos is the final appeal to an audience, using logical reasoning. It relies on statistics and evidence to prove an argument to its audience. This includes inductive and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is creating a general conclusion from numerous situations. Deductive reasoning draws this conclusion from applying the major premise to a specific example. These reasonings work together to appeal to an audience since their conclusions use logic.
What is the rhetorical situation?
The rhetorical situation regards many aspects of an argument like its audience, purpose, type, stasis, appeal, and context. It can be summarized as a triangle that is the context, with its vertices having a topic/logos, an audience/pathos, and a speaker/ethos. This allows a piece of writing to be viewed from many different perspectives, which is important when making an argument.
Answer the RESPOND question at the bottom of pages 42-43.
1. An argument can be any text that expresses a point of view.
The embossed leather cover of a prayer book can be an argument to pray, as it likely shows words or images on the cover that suggest that it can bring a peaceful state of mind. A Boston Red Sox cap can be an argument of
A Livestrong bracelet is an argument of proposal because it brings awareness to cancer. This can be a solution they want to argue as showing solidarity to this cause could help those with cancer.
The label on a best-selling rap CD can be an argument of evaluation because people would inspect whether this rap CD is better or worse than others.
The health warning on a pack of cigarettes can be an argument of proposal and a deliberative one because it proposes a solution for what would happen in the future if one uses the pack of cigarettes.
A belated birthday card can be an argument of proposal because it shows the author’s argument on what they should do when they forget someone’s birthday has passed.
The nutrition label on a can of soup is an argument of fact used to inform because the label provides information on what the soup is made of. This argument is based on evidence (the nutrient content and ingredients shown on the label), so it is an argument of fact.
The cover of a science fiction novel can be a deliberative argument because the book’s plot might take place in the future. The author here may be arguing what they believe will happen and displays that through their book’s cover as well.
A colored ribbon pinned to a shirt lapel is an argument of proposal because the ribbon might be a symbol for communicating awareness. Once a problem has been found, this ribbon might have been used as a solution by openly showing support for a cause.
A Rolex watch can be an argument of evaluation because as an expensive, branded watch, they may claim to be the best watch in the market.
2. A. I’ve used language to inform recently when I told my friend what happened one day. This was an act of persuasion because I knew the truth and was convincing her that it did happen.
B. I’ve used language to convince when I reminded my brother that he will be late to his soccer practice, as it convinces him to get ready faster. This is an action of persuasion as I know he will be late if he isn’t ready soon, so I convinced him that he needs to take action.
C. I have argued to explore when my mom and I wanted to find out where she left her phone. This is an argument because we are discovering the truth together, using reasoning as to where she may have left it.
D. I have argued to make decisions when I went on college tours this summer. This is an argument because I am discovering where I want to go to college.
E. I have used language to meditate or pray when I was going to the mosque to pray and persuaded a kid there to pray with me. This was an act of persuasion because I knew the truth and convinced someone else to act on it.
3. A. A ceremonial argument can be the opening ceremony of the Olympics. This argument to the global audience shows its values as it welcomes athletes from all around the world. It allows the audience to feel pride for their country while representing peace.
B. A deliberative argument can be the presidential debate that happened, as Donald Trump and Joe Biden argued on what they can do in the future to make them suitable to be the president again. Their purpose is to get more votes to win the election with their national audience, and it wasn’t successful in Biden’s case since he dropped out of the election.
C. A forensic argument can be a court case such as Brown v. Board of Education, as it uses evidence from the past for the judges in the Supreme Court to make a decision. Their purpose was to prove to the judges whether segregation in public schools was constitutional or not, and it was successful for Brown because the judges ruled that it was unconstitutional.
4. A. The USDA organic label evokes a feeling of quality in the food because organic food seems like a good option for people who want to eat healthy.
B. The Nike Swoosh’s audience is athletes or people who are active, and their logo’s design displays speed and determination, as Nike is the Greek goddess of victory.
C. The golden arches represent McDonald’s, and its audience is people who eat fast food. This symbol makes their audience feel stability as they can rely on their food when they are hungry.
D. The Sean John label likely has an audience of men who want fashion items. This image would make them feel like they are getting quality, expensive clothes.
E. The audience for a can of Coca-Cola is almost anyone who drinks soda. This famous company likely reminds their audience of fun, since it can be found in many places while having fun.
F. Sleeping Beauty’s castle on the Disney logo reminds its audience of fantasy, and magic, as their audience is kids and people who like to watch movies.
G. Oprah Winfrey’s personality is lively, warm, and supportive, so it makes her audience who watch her shows feel comfortable and happy.
H. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial’s audience is people from all over the nation, and especially people who have relatives who have died in the war. They likely feel remorseful, thinking about the memories they had together.
I. Ground Zero evokes a lot of emotions from Americans because it was the site of the terrorist attack on 9/11. It makes Americans feel grief as many had died and strength since the nation had to come together to rebuild what had been destroyed.
J. The dollar bill is used by Americans and can evoke memories of buying things with the money they got when they were young.
6. The purpose of the bumper sticker is to persuade the audience that a specific vehicle (the SUV) is unpatriotic. This relates closely to the stasis question of what the nature and quality of the vehicle is. The sticker communicates that the nature of an SUV isn’t patriotic to the U.S., and therefore the qualities of it are not as good as other vehicles. This appeals to the audience’s pathos because it evokes emotions of patriotism with the American flag.
Chapter 2: Arguments from the Heart-- Pathos
Look up the word appeal. What does it mean?
An appeal is a crucial request to the public.
Explain the concept of emotional appeal. Then, provide an example that you have seen, read, or heard. Why did it appeal to you? What emotion did it evoke? Did others around you have a similar reaction?
Emotional appeal (pathos) properly is important when addressing the public because everyone’s feelings impact their decisions. An example of emotional appeal was when I saw an advertisement to help dogs in a shelter who needed to be adopted. It made me and my brother feel sad for how they were treated before, but also grateful that my cat isn’t being treated like that.
When are emotional appeals the most effective? Why do they work better in this instance than a logical appeal?
Emotional appeals are more effective when persuading someone because the goal is to get someone to take action. A logical appeal wouldn’t work as well in this scenario because while it can get them to understand that something is true, it doesn’t pull them to do anything about it (like boycotting, donating, or spreading awareness).
Explain in your own words how emotional appeals build bridges.
Pathos builds bridges by allowing the reader to completely understand that the author experienced their struggles. By showing the audience that the speaker knows their pain, it allows them to feel trusted and connected.
How do you win over an audience when the logical claims that you are making are likely to go against what many in the audience believe? Explain how that can work (use examples).
To win over an audience that doesn’t believe the logical claims given, it is better to approach the audience with pathos. An example of this would be Micheal Pollan, who argued that the rights of animals are overlooked by describing how he was eating a steak while reading a book called Animal Liberation making him experience cognitive dissonance. This allows the audience to become interested in both sides of the argument because of his detailed imagery.
How does the writer/speaker gauge how much emotion will be effective?
The writer can gauge how much emotion is needed to become effective by understanding that strong emotions that make the audience feel uncomfortable (such as rage or shame) will end up in them feeling offended instead of convinced. Instead, the speaker could use a different emotion like anger in a sarcastic yet strategic way that allows the audience to consider issues or consequences.
Humor is an emotional appeal. Explain how that can be effective.
Humor can be an effective appeal because it can gain the attention and openness of the audience when saying something they might’ve not wanted to hear otherwise (whether that be something controversial or a sensitive issue). It is easier to agree with someone while smiling, therefore making it effective.
On page 57, the word sober is used in an interesting context. What does the word mean in this sentence? (note: it has nothing to do with intoxication).
The word sober in the context of this sentence means that humor allows a point to be made that would otherwise seem boring in a regular piece of writing.
Explain how Dave Barry uses humor to communicate his points about why people don’t read the instructions. Humor, in rhetorical analysis, is based on intent---what the speaker was trying to do.
Barry uses humor here in a relatable way to grab the attention of the audience so that they are more open to what he has to say. He communicates how men don’t want to admit that they don’t know how to assemble it and would rather do something silly like make it light on fire while going across the room. This allows them to not have to be humbled by reading the manual, which was the point the author wanted to make.
How do politicians use humor to acknowledge things they wouldn’t be able to acknowledge otherwise?
Politicians can use humor in this way by admitting the way they are perceived by others, like how George W. Bush communicated how everyone mocked his intellect.
Explain how ridicule is a form of emotional appeal. How have you heard it used in today’s world?
Ridicule is used in ways like discrediting whatever the speaker is saying as flawed to appeal to the audience’s emotions. Nowadays, it is common to hear this as well as putting someone down jokingly, but unless it is done right, it typically isn’t that funny.
What are human interest stories and what effect do they have on their audience?
Human interest stories are honest narratives that are used to appeal to the audience’s emotions (like sympathy, sorrow, or rage) when making an argument. Telling these specific moments to the audience can allow them to feel the impact of the point the speaker is trying to make.
Answer #1 under RESPOND on page 58.
A. The slogan for Nike appeals to one’s determination, as it implies that one can do anything one sets their mind to do.
B. The ad for Apple Computers appeals to using one’s imagination, inspiration, and to be unique.
C. The ad for AT&T appeals to sympathy as it communicates supporting someone meaningfully.
D. The campaign slogan in 1964 for the U.S. presidential candidate Bill Clinton makes a plea for one’s trust and promotes self-reflection as this slogan seems certain and loyal.
E. Bill Clinton’s campaign theme to be the U.S. president in 1992 appeals to one’s frustration, while implying urgency to fix it if he were president.
F. The rallying cry from Malcolm X appeals to one’s determination and perseverance, as it shows that no matter what, he will get what they need.
G. The slogan for Burger King appeals to one’s personal preferences and desires, as it means that theory can eat whatever they like at this fast food restaurant.
H. The slogan for Texaco appeals to one’s reliability and loyalty as it implies that the people fixing the cars know what they are doing.
I. The slogan for Visa appeals to one’s belonging as it implies that everyone is connected through Visa, and has the freedom to go anywhere they want.
J. The tagline for Calvin Klein’s jeans appeals to their customers' confidence and control as it proudly gives them an identity and a way to express themselves.
K. The Antilitter campaign slogan appeals to one’s patriotism as it names the Texans as an undefeatable group of people who can confidently support this campaign.
Chapter 3: Arguments Based on Character-- Ethos
Define ethos.
Ethos is the appeal to one’s credibility. People who use ethos to prove they are knowledgeable tend to be respected, looked up to in their achievements, and known for what they do.
Explain the reasons why people and institutions establish their character and credibility.
Institutions can establish the speaker’s credibility since it can be a prestigious university they went to or being on the news, letting them become well known.
In what ways do writers and speakers create their ethos?
Writers and speakers create ethos by using language, evidence, confident posture, and respect when disagreeing when shaping themselves from the start of the argument. They may also use their past experiences and reputations to help them if they were liked in the past for their accomplishments. If they weren’t looked up to before making their argument, they may persuade the audience to think of them in a better way.
Who is considered an “expert” on a topic? Why is this important in building a person’s ethos?
A person’s ethos makes it easier for the audience to trust what they have to say without considering every part of the claim they are trying to make. Experts on a topic are typically professionals for giving advice (like a professor or doctor), or anyone with experience with what they want help with (like a friend or family member).
Summarize the message of Peggy Noonan. How does she develop her ethos in the piece on pages 66-68?
Peggy Noonan develops her ethos through this piece of writing by making herself seem well known with good qualities like perseverance (when dealing with the amount of hate she receives). In her letter, she details the hate she had received so it is clear that it happened but doesn’t make a big deal out of it, and confronts Quindlen by almost arrogantly introducing her claim. Noonan continues to assert confidence in what she argues by saying that she is a responsible and determined person.
How do specific individuals identify their authority to speak or write on a subject?
Individuals may choose to prove their authority on a subject if they have worked in a specific field for a long time, have earned a top position in that job, have affiliations with people from their institution (such as an agency or university), or even have a certification/degree.
Explain the difference between a person’s authority on a subject and establishing credibility.
A person's authority is commonly seen as the amount of control they have on a topic, while credibility is more truthful to the audience by providing evidence to support their claims.
In what ways can language be used to establish credibility and trustworthiness?
Language can be used to create credibility by making them or their writing appear pleasing (whether that means dressing nicely or having many charts and quotes in their writing). It is also possible to do this by bridging the speaker’s values to those held highly in their society already. By making the claim more similar to what seems normal than it is, it makes it easier for the audience to accept a controversial topic. Another way to do this is by using language that communicates to the audience the way that they are. Respecting and being aware of the audience can make a speaker more trustworthy as well. It also helps if the speaker is open about their limitations too.
Someone’s motivation (whether direct or indirect) affects their credibility. Summarize that section, and think of an example situation where motivation might change your view on someone’s argument.
It is crucial to have the motivation of the author clearly stated to ensure that the audience - who may have different perspectives - is aware of the actual intent of the piece of writing (especially if it is online) to maintain credibility. Mentioning the loyalties of the author is also a good tactic to be trusted for their work.
Answer the RESPOND questions #1 & 2 (on page 76-77).
1. Oprah Winfrey is compassionate and honest since she has her own foundation (Oprah Winfrey Foundation). This means she would support campaigns related to helping as a humanitarian, like education for example.
Ellen DeGeneres works with entertainment so she could endorse products like toys, or even other shows.
Dick Cheney was the vice president of George W. Bush, so he may support military campaigns.
Katie Holmes is an actress, so she probably wouldn’t support highly political arguments, but rather endorse fashion items.
Colin Powers was a secretary of state under Bush, so he may have supported the campaigns of that president.
Al Sharpton was a politician and supported liberal and Civil Rights campaigns.
Queen Latifah was an actress who also rapped, so she could endorse fashion items.
Dave Chappelle was a comedian, so he might endorse campaigns related to free speech.
Jeff Gordon was a NASCAR champion, so he could support causes related to race cars or sports, and probably not politics.
Barbara Boxer would support liberal ideas like women’s rights and likely not endorse fashion products as she was a senator of California.
Billy O’Reilly would support conservatism rather than liberalism because be was a commentator on Fox News.
Marge Simpson would endorse items related to the household instead of luxurious ones.
2. Thank you, Anna, for your criticism. It is important to note that as a conservative living in New York City (a much more densely liberal area), it is expected to find more hate mail than many. Although this topic isn’t brought up to the public a lot, many of these threaten my life simply because of a difference in opinion. However, as an adult who is aware of the consequences of my seemingly controversial opinions, the goal of this letter is to prove that the hate received isn’t for clout and pity, but rather a real experience faced because of the honest views that should be shared.
Chapter 4: Arguments Based on Facts and Reason -- Logos
Define logos.
The appeal to facts and reasoning is called logos. It is used to question the ethos and pathos when looking at an argument.
Explain the difference between inartistic and artistic appeals. Which one is often viewed as superior?
Inartistic appeals are based on using hard evidence such as statistics and witnesses. Artistic appeals, on the other hand, use common sense to support the claim. The one often seen as superior is inartistic, hard evidence, since it clearly proves the claim.
Why does an appeal to logos persuade people? What types of evidence make logical appeals?
This appeal persuades people because proves what happened (like a crime for example), using scientific evidence. Nowadays, with advanced technology, it is much harder to counter and deny an image, fingerprint, or DNA evidence than one based on worded reasoning.
How should you, as a writer or speaker, select evidence?
As a speaker, choosing evidence supporting my claim would be important. Enough evidence that is relevant to the claim I’m trying to prove can allow whoever is reading it to understand my point.
How do institutions gain credibility?
Institutions get credibility by consistently and accurately providing evidence in the audience’s past experiences. If most people view the institution as reliable, then when an author cites the institution for evidence, the audience is likely to believe the claim.
Evaluate the use of statistics in the piece by Armen Keteyian on page 86. What major claim is made? How are statistics used to support the argument presented?
The claim Armen Keteyian made is that aluminum baseball bats aren’t as safe as the NCAA makes them out to be, since they don't test the bats in game-like conditions. She uses statistics like the pitch and swing speeds tested in the lab compared to on the field in-game, and it is clear that the way these bats are used in-game can cause more injuries than what NCAA’s injury statistics claim.
How do surveys and polls contribute to persuasive appeals?
Surveys and polls contribute to persuading an audience by providing what most people think about a subject and do. It allows officials to make decisions based on what the majority wants, and actions to stop or change.
What type of scrutiny should we have towards surveys and polls? Why is this scrutiny beneficial?
It is crucial to be sure to survey a wide variety of people who were randomly selected to get accurate information from it. Getting information from surveys that represent an area properly can give reliable information to the readers. It is also important to word the questions neutrally since that could change the responses of whoever is taking the survey.
What other types of information can be used to support a claim? What do writers need to ensure before utilizing these types of evidence?
Other types of information used for this purpose include interviews, testimonies, and narratives. These accounts of what people witness are also important evidence for what happened in the past and can be useful in a court setting.
Explain how a narrative or testimony can appeal to BOTH pathos and logos.
These pieces of evidence can appeal to both emotion and reason. This can be by displaying one’s experiences with language that makes the audience feel emotionally connected to the text, while also logically proving the argument being made from the experience.
Consider the different types of testimonies that are used as examples in this section. How are they used to support arguments?
The testimony from Zawodniak displays evidence that his professor, Jeff, was a rude instructor by explaining his experience with him in class on a particular week. By talking about his experience as a student in Jeff’s class, he is a witness who provides proper evidence for the audience relating to the argument he wanted to make.
How can people draw conclusions without hard facts?
People can come to conclusions without having inartistic evidence by using informal logic to make sense of the argument. This is more common than using hard evidence since it simply makes the argument by explaining it logically.
What is an enthymeme? Give an example and break down the implied agreements made by that example.
An enthymeme is an argument that uses a claim and reasoning. It is very common in everyone’s day-to-day life, an example of this being the argument “We’d better stop eating chips all day to get healthier.” Here, the claim is that they shouldn’t eat a lot of chips, and the reasoning is that it is healthier for them. This argument implies that chips are unhealthy and that stopping the habit is a good reason they will become healthy.
What considerations need to be taken for cultural assumptions and values?
When arguing, it is important to consider what the values and cultural assumptions are for the opponent. Based on the values related to the argument, it may not need as much evidence since it is already culturally upheld. The same thing goes the opposite way - if the value being argued doesn’t align with the audience’s culture, then more evidence is needed.
Discuss what an argument based on degree is and how it can be used persuasively.
An argument on degree is about receiving more benefits than cons. It can be used to convince that there (should be) be more good than bad in what they’re arguing.
What are analogies and how can they be effective in communicating a complex topic to your audience?
Analogies are a way to explain a topic through comparisons (similes and metaphors). This is effective because everyone can understand the point made if the topic is compared to something else they know well about.
What is an argument of precedent? Summarize the example they provided and explain why it is effective.
An argument of precedent is based on a comparison that implies an action as a result (instead of understanding a concept like an analogy). The example of drivers in New Jersey wanting to pump their own gas at the gas station compares drivers in New Jersey to those in any other state. The comparison between these drivers makes the point that if other drivers can do it, then so can drivers in New Jersey. It is effective because it makes sense that similarly abled people should be able to do the same thing, like pumping gas on their own in this example.
Answer the RESPOND question #3 (on page 101).
3. This section of the review is from Mariah Jordan about the movie Inside Out 2: “Never have I EVER related to a movie more in my life. I just watched it today in theaters, and it was worth every penny spent watching it. This last year really has been anxiety-inducing for me, from tests to friends, and Inside Out 2 was so accurate with all of the emotions that can come from stressful changes in one’s life. It had some really good funny moments sprinkled in there too, the comedic timing was on point. Pixar made a movie that was relatable, funny, a little heart wrenching, and I can confidently say it has been the best thing they have put out since Onward (2020). The story was cohesive, and instead of relying on overplayed plot tropes, they did a really good job at keeping the story unique.”
I would agree overall with what this review claims, as I did find the addition of anxiety in the movie made it quite relatable and funny to watch. It also made sense when this author said that it was accurate compared to their stressful life recently since I could understand how Riley would’ve felt based on daily experiences that I and many others have felt. These reasons (the relatability and humor) make it a great movie to watch.
Chapter 5: Thinking Rhetorically
Summarize the rhetorical analysis process that Seth Stevenson goes through to analyze the ad presented in the opening paragraphs of the chapter.
To figure out if the ad is persuasive, Stevenson figures out that it appeals to the audience’s ethos, using strategies like celebrities to do it. He also thinks about the process of how they decided to do what they did in the ad and thinks about what they want the audience to believe.
Summarize the questions that you can use to rhetorically analyze a piece.
To analyze a piece of rhetorical writing, you can ask about the purpose, audience, techniques used to appeal, the author (and their ethos), evidence used, their claims, contexts, media to display the argument, and language used.
What is the “purpose” of an argument? Why should it be considered when analyzing rhetorically?
The purpose of an argument is to have a reason to be arguing, whether that be to sell something or advocate for an issue. Understanding the purpose of the argument being made can allow us to see if it is persuasive in that subject.
Why is it important to know who is writing or speaking when analyzing rhetorically?
It is important to know who the speaker is because it can allow the reader to understand if they are reliable (having an appeal to ethos), and their goals overall. It is also required by law that a candidate say that they approve of the message in an ad so viewers are sure that the ad is related to the campaign.
Why is it important to know the intended audience when rhetorically analyzing? How does it impact the choices made in the piece?
It is important to know the intended audience here because the author addresses their claim with strategies based on who the audience is. The choices being made in the piece of writing (like the language and evidence) can determine whether or not the intended audience will be persuaded.
How do emotional appeals help to build arguments? Why should they be considered when analyzing rhetorically? How can emotional appeals make an argument more or less effective?
Pathos builds arguments by luring the reader with their emotions. Considering which emotions an argument appeals to can determine if the intended audience will be persuaded by the claim made by the author. The emotions felt by the reader, depending on the context, can deter or bring the audience’s opinion closer to the claim of the argument.
What questions should you ask when analyzing a piece for its ethos? What features of the writing should you take notice of?
When analyzing for ethos, it is important to wonder about the author’s authority, trust, and reliability to write the argument. It is good to notice if the evidence (with sources) is biased toward an agenda, or completely honest with good intentions while aware of their limitations.
In examining an argument’s logos, what judgements should you make?
To analyze for logos in a piece, it is crucial to look at whether the argument has a reasonable claim with logical evidence to back it.
In what ways can a piece communicate its thesis?
A piece can share its thesis directly or indirectly. The claim could be written as a clear statement, or have to be inferred through a story, issue, or visuals.
Summarize how claims may be structured in an argument. What process should you go through to adequately analyze all the claims made and how they support the overall argument?
Claims can be set in an argument by either clearly stating it and following it with reasons, or the opposite way with the reasons followed by the claim. This can also be expressed by multiple smaller claims that are part of a larger argument. The reader should notice if the claim or claims have consistently reliable evidence that is displayed well with proper sources. It also should be able to maintain the same purpose as it did at the beginning of the piece.
How does style impact the development or effectiveness of an argument?
Style affects an effective argument by adding information in a way that can enhance the reader’s understanding of the claim like being provided with stories, background information, contexts, and limitations. Arguments with a confident tone, helpful headings, and good transitions can make it easy to understand. Also, depending on the argument, a specific type of media could be more beneficial, along with the images or charts used to convey the message.
How can you analyze the style of visual arguments?
Looking at the style of visual arguments includes how the author introduces the text, which ideally would convince the audience to keep reading. Changing the style of the argument through literary devices can elicit different responses from the audience. Visually, the reason behind the camera angle or color used can support the claim further.
Read the piece written by Derek Bok on pages 123-125 using the skills that have been discussed in this chapter. Answer the following:
What is the rhetorical situation?
Speaker: Derek Bok
Purpose: To persuade readers that even controversial opinions should be allowed the protection of free speech in the First Amendment.
Audience: Students at universities and people generally concerned with free speech.
Context: A group of Harvard students in 1991 hung Confederate flags leading to another student putting up a swastika, symbols that in the U.S. are deemed inappropriate and offensive.
Exigence (immediate cause of the writing/speech): Many people were debating whether the symbols needed to be taken down or left alone as they simply were exercising their freedom of speech.
What choices does Bok make in his writing to support his argument?
Appeals utilized (provide evidence): He uses logos in the form of artistic appeals since he used reasoning about the First Amendment to make his argument. Bok shows this when he said, “Under the Supreme Court’s rulings, as I read them, the display of swastikas or Confederate flags clearly falls within the protection of the free speech clause of the First Amendment and cannot be forbidden simply because it offends the feelings of many members of the community.”
Choices (what rhetorical choices are present? Provide evidence.) Bok’s style of argument is succinct, as he clearly describes his view on the issue and what should be done as a result. His diction is easy to understand so is his reasoning.
Tone (does the tone shift at all throughout the piece? What impact does it have? Provide evidence): The tone of the argument starts relatively neutral as he goes through both sides. Then, he begins to clearly shift towards siding with them being protected by the free speech clause, showing the reader that he has thought through both sides to reach the conclusion he makes.
Now, read the rhetorical analysis of the piece by Milena Ateya. What did Ateya identify compared to your analysis above?
Our analyses are quite different as Ateya stated that Bok used pathos (since he described that students found the symbols offensive) while I argued he used logos (since he used the First Amendment to prove his point). Ateya addresses how Bok says that they should reach out and educate students about the offensive action, which goes against him saying that they have the right to put those flags up. She also mentions how Bok’s lack of statistical evidence when his audience is mainly students wouldn’t help him, and was critical about only using the First Amendment as his evidence as well.
Read and summarize the Guide to Writing Rhetorical Analysis on pages 129-134.
To write a rhetorical analysis, you first need to find a topic that interests you and has a lot in it to analyze (for example something on the news). Next, you need to research the author and their qualifications, information on their institution (if they have one), what the publishers of the piece typically publish, biases that may show up, and the context. Then, to develop a claim, you need to think of what the argument can achieve if the argument has an accomplished purpose, an intended audience, rhetorical devices that appeal to the audience’s emotions, and parts of the argument that were worked compared to others. After that, to make a proposal, you must show the work you are analyzing, make a hypothesis, display what you researched, why the work is worth analyzing, the audience you want to address, and the challenges when writing it. Other things to add can be a summary of the piece you are analyzing, the context, claims with evidence, and counterarguments. Then, discuss the work with others around you to get opinions on whether the claim is effective and important. They can also look at your pieces of evidence, style as being right for the subject, and grammar as being correct.
Answer the RESPOND questions 1-4 on page 135-136. List your answers below.
Martin Luther King Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” in 1963 addresses the men who arrested him for his peaceful protests against racial segregation in Alabama during the Civil Rights Movement. The purpose of his letter was to bring change without violence regarding the injustices happening at that time. It was memorable because he said laws that are not just needed to be broken to eventually bring change.
An article published on February 7, 2024, on Environment America titled “Good news: Bag bans are reducing billions of single-use plastic bags” by Celeste Meiffren-Swango, a state director of Environment Oregon, who runs campaigns to help the state’s environment. She has dealt with issues like clean water, pollution, and climate change before. In this article, she claims that many areas around the nation have been producing less pollution by banning plastic bags. She refers to a report by Environment America Research & Policy Center to show that cities with plastic bag bans are statistically creating less pollution. She also claims that cities like Salt Lake City should start to ban these single-use plastics since they harm the environment and ourselves. Since she claims that banning plastic bags is common sense and provides statistics, she uses logos to get her audience’s attention. This is paired with pathos when she explains how animals mistake plastic bags for food, harming them.
An ad from UNICEF uses pathos to grab the audience’s attention since it features a poor girl who seems sad, without a home, and holding a stroller, with text beside it saying “For every child in danger.” This image makes the audience feel sympathetic and want to help out. The goal of the advertisement is to get people to donate and help those who are struggling, and it accomplishes that by using pathos.
The advertisement for Popchips shows three stacks of chips, one being theirs, another of fried chips, and the last one of kettle chips. The amount of chips in each pile makes up 100 calories. Since Popchip’s stack of chips was the highest, they claim that their chips have fewer calories, therefore their chips are the most guilt-free to eat. This appeals to the audience’s logic because it uses numbers to make them feel convinced that Popchips are healthier to eat. It also uses pathos by showing the chips stacked up, which can make the audience want some.