Chapter 8 - Comprehensive Study Notes on the Early Republic (8.1–8.4)
8.1 Competing Visions: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the competing visions of the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans
Identify the protections granted to citizens under the Bill of Rights
Explain Alexander Hamilton’s financial programs as secretary of the treasury
INTRODUCTION: RISE OF PARTIES
In the nation’s early years, no organized political parties existed; by the 1790s, Federalists and Democratic-Republicans emerged from bitter debates about the proper size and scope of the federal government
Federalists saw unchecked democracy as a threat; pointed to the excesses of the French Revolution as proof of what could happen
Democratic-Republicans opposed Federalist notions that only the wellborn/educated could oversee the republic; viewed this as a path to aristocratic oppression
FEDERALISTS IN POWER
Beliefs and social order
Supported a social hierarchy linked to property rights; political participation constrained by property qualifications; voting and officeholding were not universally open
Did not believe the Revolution had changed traditional social roles for women, Black people, or Native peoples; argued equality would destroy the republic
Government structure and key appointments
Washington as head of state; Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury; Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State; Henry Knox as Secretary of War; Edmund Randolph as Attorney General
1789: Judiciary Act created a Supreme Court of six justices
Early legislation and economic posture
1789 Tariff Act: placed a duty on imports to raise revenue and strengthen the federal government
A fifty-cent-per-ton duty on foreign ships entering American ports to favor American shipping and goods
Bill of Rights (1791)
Anti-Federalists (not a formal party) demanded protections for individual rights; Rhode Island and North Carolina initially rejected the Constitution for lacking a Bill of Rights
James Madison introduced the Bill of Rights; adopted as the first ten amendments in 1791; outlined personal rights that state constitutions already guaranteed
Significance: softened opposition to the Constitution and lent legitimacy to the new government
Alexander Hamilton’s program: three reports (early 1790s)
The Report on Public Credit (First Report on Public Credit, January 1790)
Goal: restore credit and credibility to the new republic by honoring all debts (both state war debts and Confederation-era paper money) at face value
Proposal: issue federal bonds to private creditors; exchange old paper money for new government bonds; give state-issued paper money the same status as government bonds; interest payments begin in 1792
Rationale: reassure creditors (domestic and foreign) and restore the nation’s financial standing; described benefits beyond debt repayment, including increased resources for agriculture and commerce, internal improvements, and national security
Domestic controversy: speculators who held war debt could profit; many in Congress opposed a plan that seemed to favor speculators over original note-holders
Political compromise: with James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Hamilton secured southern support for his plan by agreeing to move the national capital from New York City to a southern site along the Potomac River (the future District of Columbia)
The Report on a National Bank (December 1790)
Proposal: create a Bank of the United States modeled on the Bank of England to stabilize currency, regulate state banks, and serve as a depository for government revenue
Mechanisms: bank would issue loans and federal banknotes; would require conversion of state bank notes to gold; would help discipline loose paper money practices across states
Constitutional justification: Hamilton invoked implied powers under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution; Washington supported him, and Congress passed the necessary legislation in 1791 to authorize the Bank’s creation
Opposition: Thomas Jefferson argued the Constitution did not permit a national bank; Hamilton continued to rely on implied powers to justify the Bank
The Report on Manufactures (December 1791)
Objective: generate revenue to pay interest on the national debt while promoting domestic manufacturing
Proposals: taxes on American-made whiskey (excise taxes) and tariffs on foreign imports to spur domestic industry; subsidies to support newborn American industries
Significance: marked a shift toward federal involvement in economic development and industrial policy
Outcomes and significance of Hamilton’s program
Helped restore European confidence and revived the U.S. economy after a long period of debt and credit problems
Facilitated the growth of the stock market and the issuance of government-backed notes
Created enduring debate over the size and scope of the federal government and the use of implied powers
THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY AND THE FIRST PARTY SYSTEM
Madison and Jefferson’s critique of Hamilton’s program
Viewed the program as immoral and inferentially designed to benefit a class of speculators at the expense of ordinary citizens
Jefferson returned from France in 1790, opposed the national bank, and argued that Hamilton favored commercial interests in American cities over rural yeoman farmers
Jefferson’s yeoman farmer ideal
Believed self-sufficient, property-owning farmers were the backbone of a virtuous republic; urban life was seen as widening inequality and undermining republican virtue
Opposed centralizing economic power that could concentrate wealth and influence
Public persuasion and opposition infrastructure
Philip Freneau published the National Gazette (1791–1793) as a counter to the Federalist Gazette of the United States; used pamphlets and newspaper campaigns to argue against Federalist policies
Example: “Rules for Changing a Limited Republican Government into an Unlimited Hereditary One” (Freneau)
The rise of Democratic-Republican societies and print culture
Societies formed in Philadelphia, New York, and other cities; organized meetings, parades, and festivals to promote republican ideals and oppose Federalist aristocracy
Some members denounced slavery and argued for broader principles of republican virtue
DEFINING CITIZENSHIP
1790 Naturalization Act defined citizenship in racial terms: a immigrant had to be a “free White person” of “good character” to become a citizen
Exclusions: enslaved people, free Black people, Native people, and Asian people were excluded from citizenship
Voting rights varied by state; many state constitutions restricted voting to male property owners or taxpayers
New Jersey briefly extended suffrage to unmarried women who owned property (1776); by 1807, New Jersey restricted voting to free White males
BACKDROP OF FOREIGN POLICY AND DOMESTIC TENSION (pre-8.2)
France’s Revolution and Haitian Revolution deepen partisan divides
France–U.S. relations were deeply contested: Democratic-Republicans favored republican France’s revolution as an inspiration; Federalists feared mob violence and radicalism
Domestic and foreign uprisings inflamed partisan debates about sovereignty, civil rights, and republican virtue
8.2 The New American Republic
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the major foreign and domestic uprisings of the early 1790s
Explain the effect of these uprisings on the political system of the United States
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC UPRISINGS OF THE EARLY 1790s
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789–1799)
Early phases (1789–1791): constitutional monarchy established; reform and republican-liberty rhetoric resonated with American Revolutionaries
1791–1792: France becomes a republic in 1792; republican liberty seen by some as aligned with American ideals
The Terror (1793–1794): executions and radicalization alarm Federalists; Democratic-Republicans saw revolutionary change as necessary to eliminate monarchy and aristocracy
Impact on U.S. politics: deepened the Federalist–Democratic-Republican divide; debates about neutrality and entangling alliances intensified
THE CITIZEN GENÈT AFFAIR AND JAY’S TREATY
Citizen Genêt Affair (1793–1794): French envoy Genêt attempted to mobilize American privateers and militia to support the French cause, challenging U.S. neutrality
British retaliations: seized American ships in the West Indies after Genêt’s actions; prompted negotiations with Britain
JAY’S TREATY (1794): Chief Justice John Jay negotiated with Britain; key outcomes included: British surrender of northwest frontier posts, broad freedom for American ships in the West Indies, and a commission to settle colonial debts; fails to address impressment
Sensitive issue: compensation for self-emancipated enslaved people who left with the British after the Revolutionary War
PINCKNEY’S TREATY (1795): with Spain; allowed American commerce through New Orleans and the Ohio-Mississippi corridors; calmed Western frontier tensions
Federalists saw Jay’s Treaty as aligned with British interests; Democratic-Republicans saw it as a betrayal of republican France
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION’S CARIBBEAN LEGACY
Saint-Domingue (Haiti) uprising (1791–1804): enslaved populations rose against plantation slavery; Toussaint L’Ouverture emerged as a leader; 1794 revolutionary French government abolished slavery in the French empire; external powers attacked Saint-Domingue; Haiti achieved independence by 1804
Caribbean migrants and the domestic fear among Federalists of French radicalism spreading to the United States
THE WHISKEY REBELLION (1794–1795)
Background: tax on whiskey under Hamilton’s program; whiskey distillers in western Pennsylvania resisted
Rebellion: tarred-and-feathered federal officials, harassed tax collectors, targeted mail; some even entertained the idea of secession
National response: Washington authorized a 13,000-strong militia to quell the rebellion (illustrates the strength of the new federal government)
Debates: Federalists argued strong central authority; Hamilton published a key essay in reply to the rebels, asserting the legitimacy of government authority and the Constitution’s power to levy taxes and enforce laws
Outcome: the rebellion was put down; legitimacy of the national government reinforced
WASHINGTON’S NATIVE AMERICAN POLICY
Frontier conflicts (1785–1795): White settlers pushed west; Native nations defended lands in Ohio territory
1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers: General Anthony Wayne defeated the Western Confederacy
1795 Treaty of Greenville: Western Confederacy ceded claims to Ohio; solidified U.S. control of the Ohio region
DEFINING AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP AND RESTRICTIONS ON IMMIGRATION (relevant to 8.2)
The 1790 Naturalization Act set precedent for racialized citizenship; citizenship and political rights were gated by race and property
8.3 Partisan Politics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify key examples of partisan wrangling between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans
Describe how foreign relations affected American politics
Assess the importance of the Louisiana Purchase
PARTISAN CLASS WARFARE AND FOREIGN POLICY
Washington’s legacy and the emergence of party competition in the presidential elections of 1796 and 1800
THE PRESIDENCY OF JOHN ADAMS (1797–1801)
Foreign policy dilemma: Franco-American tensions amid the French Directory, Napoleon’s rise, and ongoing global hostilities
Quasi-War with France (1798–1800): undeclared naval conflict in the Atlantic; unresolved issues from Jay’s Treaty and Genêt affair contributed to hostility
XYZ Affair (1797–1798): French emissaries demanded bribes and loans to begin negotiations; public outcry fueled anti-French sentiment; heightened hostilities
Navy expansion: Adams built up a U.S. Navy (as of his election in 1796, the U.S. Navy consisted of a single vessel) to protect commerce from French seizures
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION’S CARIBBEAN LEGACY AND SLAVERY-RELATED DYNAMICS
Toussaint L’Ouverture’s leadership and Haiti’s path to independence worsened slaveholders’ fears and shaped U.S. policy
THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS (1798)
Key acts and provisions
Alien Act: empowered the President to deport foreign nationals deemed dangerous; targeted French immigrants and others perceived as security risks
Alien Enemies Act: allowed deportation and limitation of aliens during war against a foreign nation
Sedition Act: criminalized making false statements against the government or actions that hindered government operations; penalties included up to five years’ imprisonment and fines (in 1790 dollars, $5{,}000)
Consequences and political responses
25 Democratic-Republicans indicted; 10 convictions
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (Madison and Jefferson) argued acts were unconstitutional and violated states’ rights; introduced nullification as a concept; failed to gain broad support
THE REVOLUTION OF 1800 AND THE PRESIDENCY OF THOMAS JEFFERSON
The election of 1800 marked the first peaceful transfer of power between parties; Jefferson’s victory signaled the decline of Federalist power and the rise of Democratic-Republican dominance
Jefferson’s vision: participatory democracy for White yeoman farmers; distrust of urban commercial power; favored limited federal government and reduced taxes; fiscal restraint including ending internal taxes (e.g., whiskey tax) and reducing military expenditures
Burr–Hamilton duel (1804): political rancor culminated in a fatal duel in Weehawken, New Jersey; Hamilton killed
LOUISIANA PURCHASE (1803)
Jefferson sought to expand territory for agricultural opportunities and to secure New Orleans for trade on the Mississippi River
Negotiated with Napoleon; the U.S. purchased the Louisiana territory for 15{,}000{,}000; doubled the size of the republic
Implications and debates
Strengthened the Jeffersonian vision of an agrarian republic; provided land for westward expansion and potential trade routes
Raised constitutional questions about presidential authority to acquire new territory; many opposed but the purchase garnered broad support from the public
Lewis and Clark expedition (1804–1806): commissioned to explore the newly acquired lands and identify commercial routes and resources
BORN OF PARTISAN TENSION: EVIDENCE OF DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN IDEOLOGY IN PUBLIC LIFE
Jefferson’s insistence on limited government contrasted with Federalist insistence on a strong central state; both parties competed for voters by appealing to different regional and economic interests
PARTISAN ACRIMONY AND JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENTS
Marbury v. Madison (1803): established the principle of judicial review; held that Marbury had a right to remedy but that the Court did not have jurisdiction under the Judiciary Act of 1789 to grant it; strengthened the Supreme Court and asserted checks on Congress and the President
The Burr–Hamilton duel (1804) as a symbol of partisan warfare and its legal/ethical implications
8.4 The United States Goes Back to War
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the causes and consequences of the War of 1812
Identify important events and their significance during the War of 1812
ROOT CAUSES OF THE WAR OF 1812
FOREIGN POLICY tensions
Impressment by the Royal Navy: forced Amercian sailors into service on British ships; unresolved by Jay’s Treaty
British support for Native resistance on the western frontier
EMBARGO OF 1807 AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
Embargo Act (1807): forbade American ships from leaving ports until seizures at sea ceased; aimed to pressure Britain and France economically
Result: severe impact on American commerce and sailors; economic hardship for farmers and port cities; widespread smuggling; negative effects on the U.S. economy
End of the embargo: Non-Intercourse Act (1809–1809) lifted embargoes except for Britain and France; shifted focus to trade with other nations
THE ECONOMIC AND MILITARY CONTEXT OF THE WAR
1807 Chesapeake affair and economic conflict intensified public support for a more assertive stance
The war effort and military build-up
Jeffersonian stance on a smaller navy and limited military was superseded by perceived threats; the United States began to build up naval power in the late 1790s and early 1800s
TECUMSEH AND THE WESTERN CONFEDERACY
Tecumseh’s alliance of Native tribes (the Western Confederacy) sought to resist white encroachment on their lands (Shawnee leadership by Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa)
William Henry Harrison’s campaigns against Prophetstown culminated in the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811), which weakened Native resistance and showcased British support for Native groups despite diplomatic agreements
MAJOR WAR-TIME OPERATIONS AND TURNING POINTS
Early setbacks (1812): U.S. defeats Detroit and control of part of the Northwest; British and Native forces advantage on the Great Lakes
Naval and frontier victories (1813–1814): Perry’s victory on Lake Erie; U.S. defeat of British at the Battle of the Thames; Tecumseh killed; Native resistance weakened
The burning of Washington, D.C. (1814): British forces captured the capital and burned major buildings, temporarily stunning the U.S. government
Fort McHenry and the Star-Spangled Banner (1814): after a failed bombardment of Baltimore, Francis Scott Key wrote a poem that later became the national anthem
Treaty diplomacy and the end of the war
Treaty of Ghent (December 1814): ended hostilities; restored prewar boundaries; did not address impressment or maritime rights
The war ended with limited territorial changes but reinforced American nationalism and confidence in the sufficiency of a democratic-republican-led nation
HOMEFRONT AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES
The war’s unpopularity in New England led to renewed Federalist calls for reform or even secession; the Hartford Convention (1814) expressed discontent and contributed to the party’s demise
The War of 1812 contributed to the decline of the Federalist Party and the emergence of the so-called Era of Good Feelings (roughly 1815–1825), marked by one-party dominance (Democratic-Republicans) and political consolidation
The Battle of New Orleans (January 1815) occurred after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed but before news reached the United States; Andrew Jackson’s leadership cemented his national prominence and helped advance the Democratic Party and populist politics in the 1820s
EPILOGUE: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS AND ITS AFTERMATH
Jackson’s victory solidified his national reputation and helped propel him to the presidency in the 1820s
The postwar period saw continued territorial expansion and a shift toward a burgeoning national market economy; the era laid the groundwork for the Second Party System and later political developments
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND THEMES COVERED THROUGHOUT THE TEXT
Visual culture and propaganda
Political cartoons (e.g., Figure 8.1—“The happy Effects of the Grand Systom [sic] of shutting Ports against the English!!”; Figure 8.4 on the Gazette newspapers; Figure 8.7 on Hamilton’s “Tully” essay) played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and political legitimacy
The role of newspapers and pamphleteering in shaping party politics
The ideological divide between Federalists (strong central government, pro-British alignment on some policies, elitist and property-based voting restrictions) and Democratic-Republicans (states’ rights, agrarian ideal, suspicion of centralized power, French alignment values)
Constitutional debates on implied powers, the scope of federal authority, and the power of the Supreme Court to interpret the Constitution
The long arc from debates in the 1790s to the early 19th century: from the founding era to the rise of the Federalist decline, the collapse of elite party structures, and the emergence of mass politics tied to geography and class
KEY VARIABLES, DATES, AND FACTS (for quick review)
Embargo Act of 1807: 1807; restricted American ships from leaving ports
Non-Intercourse Act: enacted at the end of Jefferson’s second term; 1809; lifted embargoes except with Britain and France
1789 Tariff Act: duty on imports to raise revenue
Fifty-cent-per-ton duty on foreign ships: 0.50 per ton
1790: Hamilton’s Report on Public Credit (First Report on Public Credit): debt obligation and bond issuance plan
1791: Bill of Rights adopted (Amendments I–X; table referenced as Table 8.1)
1790: Compromise location of the capital (Potomac River site; District of Columbia)
1791–1792: Whiskey tax enacted; Whiskey Rebellion (1794–1795 suppression)
1793–1794: Haitian revolution and slavery abolition in French empire; Toussaint L’Ouverture; Haiti independence achieved in 1804
1794: Battle of Fallen Timbers; Treaty of Greenville (1795) on Ohio lands
1797–1799: XYZ Affair; Quasi-War begins; ships seized
1798: Alien and Sedition Acts enacted; 25 indicted, 10 convicted
1803: Louisiana Purchase; $15 million; territory doubled in size; Lewis and Clark expedition (1804–1806)
1804: Burr–Hamilton duel (July 11, 1804)
1812–1815: War of 1812; Ghent Treaty (Dec 1814); Battle of New Orleans (Jan 8, 1815)
1815–1825: Era of Good Feelings; one-party dominance; Virginia dynasty (Madison, Monroe)