comp midterm

• Autocracy: A system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one person or a small group of people.

• Bicameralism: A legislative system with two chambers or houses.

• Codified Constitution: A constitution contained in a single, comprehensive written document.

• Constitutional Liberalism: A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, the rule of law, and limited government, often secured through a written constitution and independent judiciary.

• Democratic Backsliding: The gradual decline in the quality of democracy within a country, often through incremental institutional changes or executive actions.

• Executive Aggrandizement: The expansion of executive power at the expense of other branches of government.

• Government: The institutions, rules, and processes through which states are governed.

• Illiberal Democracy: A political system with free and fair elections but lacking strong protections for individual rights and liberties.

• Legitimacy: The belief that a government or institution has the right to rule.

• Nation: A group of people who share a common identity based on factors such as history, culture, language, or ethnicity.

• Nation-State: A state in which the boundaries of the state coincide with the boundaries of a single nation.

• Plurinational State: A state that contains multiple nations within its borders.

• Populism: A political approach that seeks to appeal to ordinary people who feel that their concerns are disregarded by established elite groups.

• State: A legal and political entity with a defined territory, a population, a government, and sovereignty.

• Stateless Nation: A nation that does not have its own state.

• Unicameralism: A legislative system with a single chamber or house.

• Veto Player: An individual or collective actor whose agreement is necessary for a political decision to be made.

Briefing Document: Democratic Backsliding, Regime Types, and Comparative Politics

I. Core Themes:

• Democratic Backsliding: The erosion of democratic norms, institutions, and freedoms, even within systems that maintain elections. This can occur through various mechanisms, including executive aggrandizement, manipulation of electoral rules, and suppression of dissent.

• Illiberal Democracy: A system where elections are held, but constitutional liberalism (rule of law, separation of powers, protection of basic liberties) is weak or absent.

• Role of Institutions: The importance of strong, independent institutions (judiciary, legislature, civil society) in safeguarding democracy and preventing the abuse of power. This includes bicameral legislatures and their role in checks and balances.

• Economic Development and Democracy: Exploring the relationship between economic development and democracy, including the potential for economic factors (like oil wealth) to hinder democratization.

• The State vs. The Nation: Distinguishing between the legal and political entity of the state and the cultural and historical concept of the nation, and exploring how they intersect (nation-states vs. plurinational states vs. stateless nations).

• Populism: Populism is a term used to describe a variety of political movements, both left and right wing, that appeal to "the people" against a perceived elite.

II. Key Ideas and Facts:

A. Democratic Backsliding and Executive Aggrandizement:

• Electoral Coups and Their Aftermath: Coup leaders often win subsequent elections, but rarely improve democracy. Examples cited include Fiji (Frank Bainimarama) and Gambia (Yahya Jammeh). Bermeo states, "Though he ruled by decree for over seven years, his Fiji First party won 59 percent of the vote and 64 percent of the seats in Parliament...But an example of democratic deepening after a coupmakers’ victory is yet to be found."

• Executive Power Grab: Leaders can weaken democratic institutions through legal and constitutional changes. Examples include:

• Turkey (Recep Tayyip Erdo¢gan): Eroding judicial independence through appointments, removing judges, and granting intelligence agencies broad powers. "In 2014, the government passed legislation giving the justice minister power to directly appoint members to the High Council of Judges and to control the inspection board that disciplines judges. Within six months, more than three-thousand sitting judges had been removed."

• Ecuador (Rafael Correa): Restricting media freedom and limiting the rights of civil society organizations. Correa implemented policies that stated, "media outlets and journalists are legally liable if the information they disseminate is not deemed 'true, verified, opportune [and] contextualized'".

• Venezuela (Nicolás Maduro): Accusations of election stealing, economic collapse, and repression of dissent. The Economist states, "Under Mr Maduro, hyperinflation soared (today, inflation is 'only' 50%). In the eight years to 2021, the economy shrank by three-quarters. Corruption is rife. Dissidents disappear into dungeons."

• Hungary (Viktor Orbán): "Through this systematic entanglement of powers Mr Orban and his associates have turned Hungary into... 'the system of national co-operation'."

• Manipulating electoral laws to favor Fidesz.

• Appointing loyalists to key positions in the judiciary and media.

• Using public works programs to secure votes.

• Restricting the media on its side. The Economist states, "This is just one of the ways Fidesz keeps the media on its side. The country’s biggest opposition newspaper, Nepszabadsag, was bought out and shuttered in 2016 by a company thought to be" government-friendly.

• Potential for Reversal: Backsliding is not irreversible. Counter-mobilization, economic crisis, and changed incentives can lead to positive change.

B. Illiberal Democracy:

• Definition: Zakaria defines illiberal democracy as "a political system marked not only by free and fair elections, but also by the rule of law, a separation of powers, and the protection of basic liberties of speech, assembly, religion, and property." He argues that free and fair elections are not sufficient for a democracy, and that the protection of individual rights is essential. Zakaria argues that while elections are important, "The process of genuine liberalization and democratization is gradual and long-term, in which an election is only one step. Without appropriate preparation, it might even be a false step."

• Usurpation of Power: Elected governments can encroach on the powers of other institutions and levels of government. This can be horizontal (within the national government) or vertical (from regional/local authorities).

• Democracy vs. Liberty: Zakaria gives the example of Hong Kong as having more liberty than other democracies. He presents the question of whether a person would rather live in, "Haiti, an illiberal democracy, or Antigua, a liberal semi-democracy."

C. Economic Development and Democracy:

• Modernization Theory: Economic development is often seen as a driver of democratization.

• Resource Curse: Oil wealth can impede democratization by reducing the state's reliance on citizens, preempting industrialization, and increasing rulers' fear of power sharing. Treisman states, "Rather than being an exception to modernization theory, the Persian Gulf petro-dictatorships may actually fit the pattern. Although extremely wealthy, they show a deficit in industrialization, incorporation of women into economic and political life, and education levels."

• Income and Democracy: Rich countries tend to be democracies, authoritarian states with oil revenues, or Singapore.

D. Bicameralism:

• Definition: Bicameralism is a common model of parliamentary design, with roughly one-third of parliamentary democracies employing two chambers.

• Purposes of Second Chambers: Russell states that bicameralism brings four key elements to the parliamentary system, "representation of a different set of interests to those which exist in—and frequently dominate—the lower house...a more independent view...a ‘veto player’ within the policy-making process...can spread the burden of parliamentary work".

• Representation of different interests (territorial, ethnic, linguistic).

• Providing an independent view in party-dominated parliaments.

• Acting as a "veto player" to ensure broader consensus.

• Spreading the burden of parliamentary work.

• Types of Second Chambers:Appointed vs. Elected (e.g., UK House of Lords vs. US Senate).

• Varying terms of office.

• Different legislative powers.

• Legitimacy: For a second chamber to be effective, it needs sufficient perceived legitimacy. Examples such as Canada and the UK demonstrate that it is not enough for an upper house to have a distinct membership and significant powers.

• Strong vs. Weak Bicameralism: Lijphart classifies parliaments based on the relative powers and composition of the two chambers. Strongly bicameral systems are liable to prove effective in challenging government and securing major changes of policy.

• Effect on Policy: Strong bicameralism is associated with more stable democracies.

E. The State and the Nation:

• State Defined: Max Weber defines the state as “A human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”

• Distinction: The state is a legal/political entity, while a nation is a cultural/historical concept.

• Types: Nation-states (state and nation coincide), plurinational states (multiple nations within a single state), stateless nations.

III. Implications and Considerations:

• Focus on Constitutional Liberalism: Promoting democracy effectively requires attention to constitutional liberalism, not just elections.

• Institutional Design Matters: The design of political institutions (electoral systems, separation of powers, judicial independence, bicameralism) can significantly affect the quality and stability of democracy.

• Context is Key: The relationship between economic development and democracy is complex and context-dependent. Resource wealth can present unique challenges.

• Second Chamber Effectiveness: The power, composition, and legitimacy of a second chamber all influence its effectiveness.

• The State and the Nation: A state and nation do not always coincide with one another.