Developmental Psych Chapter 15

The Nature of Middle Adulthood

Changing Midlife

Middle age is starting later and lasting larger
As adults become older their age identity is younger than chronological age
Some individuals consider the upper boundary of midlife as the age at which they make the transition from work to retirement
Advances in health and more people living to older ages has fueled the emergence of thinking about middle age
rectangularization of age distribution
* percentages of people at different ages in the life span are more similar
* created by health advances that promote longevity, low fertility rates, and the aging of the baby-boom cohort

Defining Midlife Adulthood

middle adulthood: developmental period that begins at 40-45 and extends to 60-65
  * time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility
  * people become more conscious of the young-old polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life
  * individuals seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation
  * people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers
although biological functioning declines in middle adulthood, sociocultural supports (education, career, and relationships) may peak
neurobiological decline is slow and gradual and doesn’t interfere with effective functioning at work or in everyday life

Physical Development

Physical Changes

midlife physical changes are usually more gradual
rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another
* genetic makeup
* lifestyle factors
combination of multiple adaptive behaviors (positive health behaviors, sense of control, social support, and emotional regulation) help to buffer declines in physical health and cognitive functioning in middle age
Visible Signs
  * first signs are apparent by forties or fifties
  * skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues
  * age spots: small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight
  * hair becomes thinner and greyer due to a lower replacement rate and a decline in melanin production
  * fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle
  * individuals may strive to make themselves look younger
    * cosmetic surgery
    * dying hair
    * heavy dose of vitamins
    * baby boomers have shown a strong interest in plastic surgery and botox
Height and Weight
  * individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight
    * men from 30-50 lose an inch in height and may lose another from 50-70
    * height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 yrs
    * large variations
  * decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae
  * obesity increases from early to middle adulthood
    * women had a higher rate of obesity than men in middle age
    * linked to increased risk of earlier death, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
Strength, Joints, and Bones
  * maximum physical strength is often attained during the twenties
  * sarcopenia: age related loss of muscle mass and strength
    * occurs at a rate of 1 or 2 percent a year after 50
    * loss of strength occurs especially ijn the back and legs
    * smoking and diabetes were risk factors for accelerated loss of muscle mass in middle-aged women
    * obesity is also a risk factor
  * peak functioning of the body’s joints usually occurs in the twenties
    * cushions for the movement of bones (tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in middle adulthood
      * many individuals experience joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement
    * maximum bone density occurs by the mid-to-late thirties, after which there is a progressive loss of bone
      * women lose bone mass twice as fast as men do
      * by the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly
      * greater intake of fruits and vegetables was linked to increased bone density in middle-ages and older adults
Vision and Hearing
  * accommodation of the eye: the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina
    * experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age
    * middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects
  * eye’s blood supply diminishes in the fifties or sixties
    * may decrease the visual field’s size
    * accounts for an increase in the eye’s blind spot
  * vision problems were linked to decreased life satisfaction, decreased self-esteem, increased depressive symptoms, and increased social isolation
  * hearing starts to decline by age 40
    * hearing loss occurs in up to 50% of people 50+
    * sensitivity to high pitches declines first
    * men lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do
      * may be due to occupational differences
  * new possibilities for improving the vision and hearing of people as they age
    * better control of gare or background noise
    * laser surgery and implantation of intraocular lenses
    * recent advances in hearing ages
Cardiovascular System
  * cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age
  * level of cholesterol in the blood increases during the adult years and in midlife beings to accumulate on the artery walls, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease
    * the type of cholesterol in the blood influences its effect
      * when the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein) is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, which can cause arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
      * when the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein) is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lower
  * at menopause, a woman’s blood pressure rises sharply and remains above that of a man through life’s later years
  * uncontrolled hypertension can damage the brain’s structure and function as early as the late thirties
    * structural damage to the brain’s white matter (axons)
    * decreased volume of gray matter
  * hypertension in middle age was linked to risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
  * exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, veggies, and whole grains can help to stave off many cardiovascular problems in middle age
  * deaths due to cardiovascular disease have been decreasing in the US since the 1970s
    * advances in medications to lower blood pressure and cholesterol in high-risk individuals
    * regular exercise and healthy eating habits
  * metabolic syndrome: characterized by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance
    * sedentary behavior (especially moderate and high tv viewing time) and chronic stress exposure are linked to metabolic syndrome
    * often leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease
    * weight loss and exercise are strongly recommended as part of the treatment of metabolic syndrome
Lungs
  * at age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic
  * combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs’ capacity to shuttle oxygen to the blood in their veins
  * smokers experience this at a greater level
  * exercise is linked to better lung functioning and a lower risk of developing lung cancer
  * increased cardiorespiratory fitness from early adulthood to middle adulthood was linked to less decline in lung health over time
  * lower bmi, less exercise, frequent drinking, and a meat-based diet were risk factors for lung cancer among never-smoking women
Sleep
  * the average American adult gets around seven hours of sleep a night
  * eight or more hours of sleep is necessary for optimal performance the next day
  * many adults have become sleep deprived
  * habitual sleep deprivation is linked to morbidity, especially among people with cardiovascular disease
  * sleep patterns change mainly between early and middle adulthood and then remain stable in healthy older adults
  * some aspects of sleep become more problematic in middle age
    * beginning in the forties, wakeful periods become more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep
    * the amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night begins to increase
      * can produce a feeling of being less rested in the morning
    * sleep-disordered breathing and restless leg syndrome are more prevalent
  * sleep problems are more common with people who use a higher number of prescription and nonprescription drugs, are obese, depressed, or have cardiovascular disease

Chronic Disorders

chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and a long duration
rate in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood
account for 86% of total health care spending in the United States
most common: arthritis
frequency of chronic disorders vary by gender
* men: fatal chronic conditions like coronary heart disease, cancer, and stroke
* women: nonfatal chronic conditions like arthritis, varicose veins, and bursitis
50% of US adults have one chronic health condition
adults with arthritis as one of their multiple chronic conditions had more adverse outcomes (restricted social participation, serious psychological distress, work limitations)

Mortality Rates

infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the twentieth century
chronic diseases are now the main causes of death for individuals in middle adulthood
men have higher mortality rates than women for all leading causes of death

Sexuality

climacteric: describes the midlife transition in which fertility declines
menopause: time in middle age when a woman’s menstrual periods cease
  * usually in late forties or early fifties (average age is 51)
  * late menopause was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer
  * menarche: girl’s first menstruation
    * timing of menarche has significantly decreased
  * perimenopause: transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all
    * takes up to 10 years
    * usually occurs during the forties but can occur in the thirties
    * symptoms: depressed feelings, headaches, moodiness, and heart palpitations
    * the more minutes per week that women exercised, the lower their perceived stress was
  * production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically
    * decline produces uncomfortable symptoms: hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat
  * cross-cultural studies reveal variations in the menopause experience
  * few women have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause
  * loss of fertility
  * until recently, hormone replacement therapy was prescribed as treatment for the unpleasant side effects of menopause
    * for short-term relief, the benefits outweigh the risks
      * lowers the risk of bone loss and bone fractures in post-menopausal women
      * associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease
    * hrt is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer
      * the longer hrt is taken, the greater the risk
  * hrt alternatives: regular exercise, mindfulness training, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and nonsteroidal medications
hormonal changes in middle-aged men
  * most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there is usually a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity
  * testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood
  * sperm count usually declines slowly
  * male hypogonadism: condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone
  * testosterone replacement therapy
    * can improve sexual functioning, muscle strength, and bone health
    * associated with longevity in men with a lower level of testosterone
    * improved older men’s sexual function as well as their mood
    * associated with a lower incidence of having a heart attack or a stroke
  * erectile dysfunction: difficulty attaining or maintaining penile erection
    * affects 50% of men 40-70 yrs old
    * affects 75% of men over 70 yrs
    * low testosterone levels can contribute to erectile dysfunction
    * main treatment: Viagra and similar drugs (Levitra, Cialis)
      * allows increased blood flow into the penis
    * other treatments: low-intensity shock-wave therapy
sexual attitudes and behavior
  * usually occurs less frequently in midlife than in early adulthood
  * middle-aged and older adults who had sex more frequently also had better overall cognitive functioning, especially working memory and executive function
  * past-year decline in sexual desire or frequency of sexual activities was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and lower quality of life
  * living with a spouse or partner increases the chance for people to engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40
  * premature ejaculation and erectile difficulties were the most common sexual problems of older men
  * lack of sexual nterest and lubrication difficulties were the most common in older women
  * a person’s health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity
    * level of sexual activity was associated with their phycial and mental health
    * social and relationship factors are also important

Cognitive Development

Intelligence

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
  * John Horn: some abilities begin to decline in middle age while others increase
  * crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills
    * continues to increase in middle adulthood
  * fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason abstractly
    * begins to decline in middle adulthood
    * declined in individuals 65+ but not in those 45-60
    * differences might be due to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than age
The Seattle Longitudinal Study
  * highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities occurred in middle adulthood
  * numeric facility and perceptual speed declined in middle age
    * perceptual speed showed the earliest decline - begins in early adulthood
  * middle age was a time of peak intelligence for some aspects of both crystallized and fluid intelligence
  * lower level of cognitive functioning in early and middle adulthood is likely due to age-related neurobiological decline
  * longitudinal studies hold the key to determining age-related changes in cognitive functioning
  * middle age is the time when many cognitive skills peak

Information Processing

Speed of Information Processing
  * perceptual speed begins declining in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood
  * common assessment: reaction-time task
  * decline is not dramatic
Memory
  * verbal memory has shown a decline in middle age, especially when assessed in cross-sectional studies
  * memory declines at some point during this point of adult development
  * memory decline is either nonexistent or minimal in the early part of middle age but does occur in the latter part of middle age or in late adulthood
  * changes in working memory
    * more time is needed to learn new information
    * in late middle age, working memory capacity becomes more limited
  * memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies
  * having a higher level of education and engaging in frequent physical exercise were linked to less decline in middle-aged and older adults’ episodic memory
Expertise
* because it takes so long to attain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood
* expertise involves having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
Practical Problem Solving
  * everyday problem solving is an important aspect of cognition
  * ability to solve practical problems improved through the forties and fifties as individuals accumulated practical experience
  * everyday problem solving showed an increase in performance from early adulthood to middle adulthood, with performance showing a decrease at about 50
  * fluid intelligence predicted performance on everyday problem solving in young adults but with increasing age, crystallized intelligence became a better predictor

Careers, Work, and Leisure

Work in Midlife

work is central during middle adulthood
many middle-aged adults reach their peak in position and earnings
multiple financial burdens
age-related declines occur in some occupations, but for most jobs, no differences have been found in work performance
quality of work done by employees in middle age is liked to how much their work is appreciated and how well they get along with their immediate supervisors
work ability in middle age is linked to mortality and disability 28 yrs later
couples increasingly have both spouses in the workforce who are expecting to retire
economic downturns and recessions in the US have forced some middle-aged individuals into premature retirement because of job loss and fear of not being able to reenter the workforce
* may also result in accumulating insufficient financial resources to cover an increasingly long retirement period

Career Challenges and Changes

globalization has replaced what was primarily a white male workforce with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds
decline in defined-benefit pensions and increased uncertainty about the fate of heath insurance are decreasing the sense of personal control among middle-aged workers
* many are delaying retirement
some midlife career changes are self-motivated, others are the consequence of losing one’s job
  * for many US workers 50 yrs and older, the decision to leave a job won’t be theirs
  * more than 50% of these workers are pushed out of longtime jobs before they choose to retire, suffering considerable financial damage
  * only 10% of these workers ever again earn as much as they did
cognitive factors earlier in development are linked to occupational attainment in middle age
* task persistence at 13 yrs was related to occupational success in middle age

Leisure

leisure: pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing
top six regrets: one is not engaging in more leisure
midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure
engaging in less leisure-time activity in middle age was linked to increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
if an adult develops leisure activities that can be continued into retirement, the transition from work to retirement can be less stressful
type of leisure activity can be linked to different outcomes
* engaging in higher complexity of work before retirement was associated with a smaller decline in cognitive performance in retirement
after individuals experienced daily stressful events, if they engaged in more leisure time than usual on those days, the leisure time served as a positive coping strategy in improving their moods

Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life

Religion, Spirituality, and Adult Lives

religion: organized set of beliefs that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other
religiousness: degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in its prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers
spirituality: experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society
92% of US adults said they believe in God and 50% reported that religion is very important to them
influence of religion and spirituality in people’s lives may change as they develop
women have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion and spirituality than men have
spirituality of women increased more than that of men in the second half of life

Religion, Spirituality, and Health

some cults and religious sects encourage behaviors that can be damaging to health
spirituality / religion is positively linked to health
various dimensions of religion and coping can help some individuals cope more effectively with challenges in their lives

Meaning in Life

three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility
* spirituality: human being’s uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind
in middle adulthood, individuals begin to be faced with death more often
meaning-making coping is especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss
having a sense of meaning in life can lead to clearer guidelines for living one’s life and enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and reach goals
higher level of meaning in life is linked to better physical health