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Developmental Psych Chapter 15

The Nature of Middle Adulthood

Changing Midlife

  • Middle age is starting later and lasting larger

  • As adults become older their age identity is younger than chronological age

  • Some individuals consider the upper boundary of midlife as the age at which they make the transition from work to retirement

  • Advances in health and more people living to older ages has fueled the emergence of thinking about middle age

  • rectangularization of age distribution

    • percentages of people at different ages in the life span are more similar

    • created by health advances that promote longevity, low fertility rates, and the aging of the baby-boom cohort

Defining Midlife Adulthood

  • middle adulthood: developmental period that begins at 40-45 and extends to 60-65

    • time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility

    • people become more conscious of the young-old polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life

    • individuals seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation

    • people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers

  • although biological functioning declines in middle adulthood, sociocultural supports (education, career, and relationships) may peak

  • neurobiological decline is slow and gradual and doesn’t interfere with effective functioning at work or in everyday life

Physical Development

Physical Changes

  • midlife physical changes are usually more gradual

  • rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another

    • genetic makeup

    • lifestyle factors

  • combination of multiple adaptive behaviors (positive health behaviors, sense of control, social support, and emotional regulation) help to buffer declines in physical health and cognitive functioning in middle age

  • Visible Signs

    • first signs are apparent by forties or fifties

    • skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues

    • age spots: small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight

    • hair becomes thinner and greyer due to a lower replacement rate and a decline in melanin production

    • fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle

    • individuals may strive to make themselves look younger

      • cosmetic surgery

      • dying hair

      • heavy dose of vitamins

      • baby boomers have shown a strong interest in plastic surgery and botox

  • Height and Weight

    • individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight

      • men from 30-50 lose an inch in height and may lose another from 50-70

      • height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 yrs

      • large variations

    • decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae

    • obesity increases from early to middle adulthood

      • women had a higher rate of obesity than men in middle age

      • linked to increased risk of earlier death, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease

  • Strength, Joints, and Bones

    • maximum physical strength is often attained during the twenties

    • sarcopenia: age related loss of muscle mass and strength

      • occurs at a rate of 1 or 2 percent a year after 50

      • loss of strength occurs especially ijn the back and legs

      • smoking and diabetes were risk factors for accelerated loss of muscle mass in middle-aged women

      • obesity is also a risk factor

    • peak functioning of the body’s joints usually occurs in the twenties

      • cushions for the movement of bones (tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in middle adulthood

        • many individuals experience joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement

      • maximum bone density occurs by the mid-to-late thirties, after which there is a progressive loss of bone

        • women lose bone mass twice as fast as men do

        • by the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly

        • greater intake of fruits and vegetables was linked to increased bone density in middle-ages and older adults

  • Vision and Hearing

    • accommodation of the eye: the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina

      • experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age

      • middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects

    • eye’s blood supply diminishes in the fifties or sixties

      • may decrease the visual field’s size

      • accounts for an increase in the eye’s blind spot

    • vision problems were linked to decreased life satisfaction, decreased self-esteem, increased depressive symptoms, and increased social isolation

    • hearing starts to decline by age 40

      • hearing loss occurs in up to 50% of people 50+

      • sensitivity to high pitches declines first

      • men lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do

        • may be due to occupational differences

    • new possibilities for improving the vision and hearing of people as they age

      • better control of gare or background noise

      • laser surgery and implantation of intraocular lenses

      • recent advances in hearing ages

  • Cardiovascular System

    • cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age

    • level of cholesterol in the blood increases during the adult years and in midlife beings to accumulate on the artery walls, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease

      • the type of cholesterol in the blood influences its effect

        • when the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein) is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, which can cause arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)

        • when the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein) is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lower

    • at menopause, a woman’s blood pressure rises sharply and remains above that of a man through life’s later years

    • uncontrolled hypertension can damage the brain’s structure and function as early as the late thirties

      • structural damage to the brain’s white matter (axons)

      • decreased volume of gray matter

    • hypertension in middle age was linked to risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood

    • exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, veggies, and whole grains can help to stave off many cardiovascular problems in middle age

    • deaths due to cardiovascular disease have been decreasing in the US since the 1970s

      • advances in medications to lower blood pressure and cholesterol in high-risk individuals

      • regular exercise and healthy eating habits

    • metabolic syndrome: characterized by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance

      • sedentary behavior (especially moderate and high tv viewing time)  and chronic stress exposure are linked to metabolic syndrome

      • often leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease

      • weight loss and exercise are strongly recommended as part of the treatment of metabolic syndrome

  • Lungs

    • at age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic

    • combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs’ capacity to shuttle oxygen to the blood in their veins

    • smokers experience this at a greater level

    • exercise is linked to better lung functioning and a lower risk of developing lung cancer

    • increased cardiorespiratory fitness from early adulthood to middle adulthood was linked to less decline in lung health over time

    • lower bmi, less exercise, frequent drinking, and a meat-based diet were risk factors for lung cancer among never-smoking women

  • Sleep

    • the average American adult gets around seven hours of sleep a night

    • eight or more hours of sleep is necessary for optimal performance the next day

    • many adults have become sleep deprived

    • habitual sleep deprivation is linked to morbidity, especially among people with cardiovascular disease

    • sleep patterns change mainly between early and middle adulthood and then remain stable in healthy older adults

    • some aspects of sleep become more problematic in middle age

      • beginning in the forties, wakeful periods become more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep

      • the amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night begins to increase

        • can produce a feeling of being less rested in the morning

      • sleep-disordered breathing and restless leg syndrome are more prevalent

    • sleep problems are more common with people who use a higher number of prescription and nonprescription drugs, are obese, depressed, or have cardiovascular disease

Chronic Disorders

  • chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and a long duration

  • rate in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood

  • account for 86% of total health care spending in the United States

  • most common: arthritis

  • frequency of chronic disorders vary by gender

    • men: fatal chronic conditions like coronary heart disease, cancer, and stroke

    • women: nonfatal chronic conditions like arthritis, varicose veins, and bursitis

  • 50% of US adults have one chronic health condition

  • adults with arthritis as one of their multiple chronic conditions had more adverse outcomes (restricted social participation, serious psychological distress, work limitations)

Mortality Rates

  • infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the twentieth century

  • chronic diseases are now the main causes of death for individuals in middle adulthood

  • men have higher mortality rates than women for all leading causes of death

Sexuality

  • climacteric: describes the midlife transition in which fertility declines

  • menopause: time in middle age when a woman’s menstrual periods cease

    • usually in late forties or early fifties (average age is 51)

    • late menopause was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer

    • menarche: girl’s first menstruation

      • timing of menarche has significantly decreased

    • perimenopause: transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all

      • takes up to 10 years

      • usually occurs during the forties but can occur in the thirties

      • symptoms: depressed feelings, headaches, moodiness, and heart palpitations

      • the more minutes per week that women exercised, the lower their perceived stress was

    • production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically

      • decline produces uncomfortable symptoms: hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat

    • cross-cultural studies reveal variations in the menopause experience

    • few women have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause

    • loss of fertility

    • until recently, hormone replacement therapy was prescribed as treatment for the unpleasant side effects of menopause

      • for short-term relief, the benefits outweigh the risks

        • lowers the risk of bone loss and bone fractures in post-menopausal women

        • associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease

      • hrt is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer

        • the longer hrt is taken, the greater the risk

    • hrt alternatives: regular exercise, mindfulness training, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and nonsteroidal medications

  • hormonal changes in middle-aged men

    • most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there is usually a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity

    • testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood

    • sperm count usually declines slowly

    • male hypogonadism: condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone

    • testosterone replacement therapy

      • can improve sexual functioning, muscle strength, and bone health

      • associated with longevity in men with a lower level of testosterone

      • improved older men’s sexual function as well as their mood

      • associated with a lower incidence of having a heart attack or a stroke

    • erectile dysfunction: difficulty attaining or maintaining penile erection

      • affects 50% of men 40-70 yrs old

      • affects 75% of men over 70 yrs

      • low testosterone levels can contribute to erectile dysfunction

      • main treatment: Viagra and similar drugs (Levitra, Cialis)

        • allows increased blood flow into the penis

      • other treatments: low-intensity shock-wave therapy

  • sexual attitudes and behavior

    • usually occurs less frequently in midlife than in early adulthood

    • middle-aged and older adults who had sex more frequently also had better overall cognitive functioning, especially working memory and executive function

    • past-year decline in sexual desire or frequency of sexual activities was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and lower quality of life

    • living with a spouse or partner increases the chance for people to engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40

    • premature ejaculation and erectile difficulties were the most common sexual problems of older men

    • lack of sexual nterest and lubrication difficulties were the most common in older women

    • a person’s health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity

      • level of sexual activity was associated with their phycial and mental health

      • social and relationship factors are also important

Cognitive Development

Intelligence

  • Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

    • John Horn: some abilities begin to decline in middle age while others increase

    • crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills

      • continues to increase in middle adulthood

    • fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason abstractly

      • begins to decline in middle adulthood

      • declined in individuals 65+ but not in those 45-60

      • differences might be due to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than age

  • The Seattle Longitudinal Study

    • highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities occurred in middle adulthood

    • numeric facility and perceptual speed declined in middle age

      • perceptual speed showed the earliest decline - begins in early adulthood

    • middle age was a time of peak intelligence for some aspects of both crystallized and fluid intelligence

    • lower level of cognitive functioning in early and middle adulthood is likely due to age-related neurobiological decline

    • longitudinal studies hold the key to determining age-related changes in cognitive functioning

    • middle age is the time when many cognitive skills peak

Information Processing

  • Speed of Information Processing

    • perceptual speed begins declining in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood

    • common assessment: reaction-time task

    • decline is not dramatic

  • Memory

    • verbal memory has shown a decline in middle age, especially when assessed in cross-sectional studies

    • memory declines at some point during this point of adult development

    • memory decline is either nonexistent or minimal in the early part of middle age but does occur in the latter part of middle age or in late adulthood

    • changes in working memory

      • more time is needed to learn new information

      • in late middle age, working memory capacity becomes more limited

    • memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies

    • having a higher level of education and engaging in frequent physical exercise were linked to less decline in middle-aged and older adults’ episodic memory

  • Expertise

    • because it takes so long to attain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood

    • expertise involves having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain

  • Practical Problem Solving

    • everyday problem solving is an important aspect of cognition

    • ability to solve practical problems improved through the forties and fifties as individuals accumulated practical experience

    • everyday problem solving showed an increase in performance from early adulthood to middle adulthood, with performance showing a decrease at about 50

    • fluid intelligence predicted performance on everyday problem solving in young adults but with increasing age, crystallized intelligence became a better predictor

Careers, Work, and Leisure

Work in Midlife

  • work is central during middle adulthood

  • many middle-aged adults reach their peak in position and earnings

  • multiple financial burdens

  • age-related declines occur in some occupations, but for most jobs, no differences have been found in work performance

  • quality of work done by employees in middle age is liked to how much their work is appreciated and how well they get along with their immediate supervisors

  • work ability in middle age is linked to mortality and disability 28 yrs later

  • couples increasingly have both spouses in the workforce who are expecting to retire

  • economic downturns and recessions in the US have forced some middle-aged individuals into premature retirement because of job loss and fear of not being able to reenter the workforce

    • may also result in accumulating insufficient financial resources to cover an increasingly long retirement period

Career Challenges and Changes

  • globalization has replaced what was primarily a white male workforce with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds

  • decline in defined-benefit pensions and increased uncertainty about the fate of heath insurance are decreasing the sense of personal control among middle-aged workers

    • many are delaying retirement

  • some midlife career changes are self-motivated, others are the consequence of losing one’s job

    • for many US workers 50 yrs and older, the decision to leave a job won’t be theirs

    • more than 50% of these workers are pushed out of longtime jobs before they choose to retire, suffering considerable financial damage

    • only 10% of these workers ever again earn as much as they did

  • cognitive factors earlier in development are linked to occupational attainment in middle age

    • task persistence at 13 yrs was related to occupational success in middle age

Leisure

  • leisure: pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing

  • top six regrets: one is not engaging in more leisure

  • midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure

  • engaging in less leisure-time activity in middle age was linked to increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood

  • if an adult develops leisure activities that can be continued into retirement, the transition from work to retirement can be less stressful

  • type of leisure activity can be linked to different outcomes

    • engaging in higher complexity of work before retirement was associated with a smaller decline in cognitive performance in retirement

  • after individuals experienced daily stressful events, if they engaged in more leisure time than usual on those days, the leisure time served as a positive coping strategy in improving their moods

Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life

Religion, Spirituality, and Adult Lives

  • religion: organized set of beliefs that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other

  • religiousness: degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in its prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers

  • spirituality: experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society

  • 92% of US adults said they believe in God and 50% reported that religion is very important to them

  • influence of religion and spirituality in people’s lives may change as they develop

  • women have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion and spirituality than men have

  • spirituality of women increased more than that of men in the second half of life

Religion, Spirituality, and Health

  • some cults and religious sects encourage behaviors that can be damaging to health

  • spirituality / religion is positively linked to health

  • various dimensions of religion and coping can help some individuals cope more effectively with challenges in their lives

Meaning in Life

  • three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility

    • spirituality: human being’s uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind

  • in middle adulthood, individuals begin to be faced with death more often

  • meaning-making coping is especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss

  • having a sense of meaning in life can lead to clearer guidelines for living one’s life and enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and reach goals

  • higher level of meaning in life is linked to better physical health

Developmental Psych Chapter 15

The Nature of Middle Adulthood

Changing Midlife

  • Middle age is starting later and lasting larger

  • As adults become older their age identity is younger than chronological age

  • Some individuals consider the upper boundary of midlife as the age at which they make the transition from work to retirement

  • Advances in health and more people living to older ages has fueled the emergence of thinking about middle age

  • rectangularization of age distribution

    • percentages of people at different ages in the life span are more similar

    • created by health advances that promote longevity, low fertility rates, and the aging of the baby-boom cohort

Defining Midlife Adulthood

  • middle adulthood: developmental period that begins at 40-45 and extends to 60-65

    • time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility

    • people become more conscious of the young-old polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life

    • individuals seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation

    • people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers

  • although biological functioning declines in middle adulthood, sociocultural supports (education, career, and relationships) may peak

  • neurobiological decline is slow and gradual and doesn’t interfere with effective functioning at work or in everyday life

Physical Development

Physical Changes

  • midlife physical changes are usually more gradual

  • rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another

    • genetic makeup

    • lifestyle factors

  • combination of multiple adaptive behaviors (positive health behaviors, sense of control, social support, and emotional regulation) help to buffer declines in physical health and cognitive functioning in middle age

  • Visible Signs

    • first signs are apparent by forties or fifties

    • skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues

    • age spots: small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight

    • hair becomes thinner and greyer due to a lower replacement rate and a decline in melanin production

    • fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle

    • individuals may strive to make themselves look younger

      • cosmetic surgery

      • dying hair

      • heavy dose of vitamins

      • baby boomers have shown a strong interest in plastic surgery and botox

  • Height and Weight

    • individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight

      • men from 30-50 lose an inch in height and may lose another from 50-70

      • height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 yrs

      • large variations

    • decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae

    • obesity increases from early to middle adulthood

      • women had a higher rate of obesity than men in middle age

      • linked to increased risk of earlier death, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease

  • Strength, Joints, and Bones

    • maximum physical strength is often attained during the twenties

    • sarcopenia: age related loss of muscle mass and strength

      • occurs at a rate of 1 or 2 percent a year after 50

      • loss of strength occurs especially ijn the back and legs

      • smoking and diabetes were risk factors for accelerated loss of muscle mass in middle-aged women

      • obesity is also a risk factor

    • peak functioning of the body’s joints usually occurs in the twenties

      • cushions for the movement of bones (tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in middle adulthood

        • many individuals experience joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement

      • maximum bone density occurs by the mid-to-late thirties, after which there is a progressive loss of bone

        • women lose bone mass twice as fast as men do

        • by the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly

        • greater intake of fruits and vegetables was linked to increased bone density in middle-ages and older adults

  • Vision and Hearing

    • accommodation of the eye: the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina

      • experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age

      • middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects

    • eye’s blood supply diminishes in the fifties or sixties

      • may decrease the visual field’s size

      • accounts for an increase in the eye’s blind spot

    • vision problems were linked to decreased life satisfaction, decreased self-esteem, increased depressive symptoms, and increased social isolation

    • hearing starts to decline by age 40

      • hearing loss occurs in up to 50% of people 50+

      • sensitivity to high pitches declines first

      • men lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do

        • may be due to occupational differences

    • new possibilities for improving the vision and hearing of people as they age

      • better control of gare or background noise

      • laser surgery and implantation of intraocular lenses

      • recent advances in hearing ages

  • Cardiovascular System

    • cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age

    • level of cholesterol in the blood increases during the adult years and in midlife beings to accumulate on the artery walls, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease

      • the type of cholesterol in the blood influences its effect

        • when the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein) is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, which can cause arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)

        • when the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein) is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lower

    • at menopause, a woman’s blood pressure rises sharply and remains above that of a man through life’s later years

    • uncontrolled hypertension can damage the brain’s structure and function as early as the late thirties

      • structural damage to the brain’s white matter (axons)

      • decreased volume of gray matter

    • hypertension in middle age was linked to risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood

    • exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, veggies, and whole grains can help to stave off many cardiovascular problems in middle age

    • deaths due to cardiovascular disease have been decreasing in the US since the 1970s

      • advances in medications to lower blood pressure and cholesterol in high-risk individuals

      • regular exercise and healthy eating habits

    • metabolic syndrome: characterized by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance

      • sedentary behavior (especially moderate and high tv viewing time)  and chronic stress exposure are linked to metabolic syndrome

      • often leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease

      • weight loss and exercise are strongly recommended as part of the treatment of metabolic syndrome

  • Lungs

    • at age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic

    • combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs’ capacity to shuttle oxygen to the blood in their veins

    • smokers experience this at a greater level

    • exercise is linked to better lung functioning and a lower risk of developing lung cancer

    • increased cardiorespiratory fitness from early adulthood to middle adulthood was linked to less decline in lung health over time

    • lower bmi, less exercise, frequent drinking, and a meat-based diet were risk factors for lung cancer among never-smoking women

  • Sleep

    • the average American adult gets around seven hours of sleep a night

    • eight or more hours of sleep is necessary for optimal performance the next day

    • many adults have become sleep deprived

    • habitual sleep deprivation is linked to morbidity, especially among people with cardiovascular disease

    • sleep patterns change mainly between early and middle adulthood and then remain stable in healthy older adults

    • some aspects of sleep become more problematic in middle age

      • beginning in the forties, wakeful periods become more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep

      • the amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night begins to increase

        • can produce a feeling of being less rested in the morning

      • sleep-disordered breathing and restless leg syndrome are more prevalent

    • sleep problems are more common with people who use a higher number of prescription and nonprescription drugs, are obese, depressed, or have cardiovascular disease

Chronic Disorders

  • chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and a long duration

  • rate in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood

  • account for 86% of total health care spending in the United States

  • most common: arthritis

  • frequency of chronic disorders vary by gender

    • men: fatal chronic conditions like coronary heart disease, cancer, and stroke

    • women: nonfatal chronic conditions like arthritis, varicose veins, and bursitis

  • 50% of US adults have one chronic health condition

  • adults with arthritis as one of their multiple chronic conditions had more adverse outcomes (restricted social participation, serious psychological distress, work limitations)

Mortality Rates

  • infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the twentieth century

  • chronic diseases are now the main causes of death for individuals in middle adulthood

  • men have higher mortality rates than women for all leading causes of death

Sexuality

  • climacteric: describes the midlife transition in which fertility declines

  • menopause: time in middle age when a woman’s menstrual periods cease

    • usually in late forties or early fifties (average age is 51)

    • late menopause was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer

    • menarche: girl’s first menstruation

      • timing of menarche has significantly decreased

    • perimenopause: transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all

      • takes up to 10 years

      • usually occurs during the forties but can occur in the thirties

      • symptoms: depressed feelings, headaches, moodiness, and heart palpitations

      • the more minutes per week that women exercised, the lower their perceived stress was

    • production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically

      • decline produces uncomfortable symptoms: hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat

    • cross-cultural studies reveal variations in the menopause experience

    • few women have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause

    • loss of fertility

    • until recently, hormone replacement therapy was prescribed as treatment for the unpleasant side effects of menopause

      • for short-term relief, the benefits outweigh the risks

        • lowers the risk of bone loss and bone fractures in post-menopausal women

        • associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease

      • hrt is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer

        • the longer hrt is taken, the greater the risk

    • hrt alternatives: regular exercise, mindfulness training, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and nonsteroidal medications

  • hormonal changes in middle-aged men

    • most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there is usually a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity

    • testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood

    • sperm count usually declines slowly

    • male hypogonadism: condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone

    • testosterone replacement therapy

      • can improve sexual functioning, muscle strength, and bone health

      • associated with longevity in men with a lower level of testosterone

      • improved older men’s sexual function as well as their mood

      • associated with a lower incidence of having a heart attack or a stroke

    • erectile dysfunction: difficulty attaining or maintaining penile erection

      • affects 50% of men 40-70 yrs old

      • affects 75% of men over 70 yrs

      • low testosterone levels can contribute to erectile dysfunction

      • main treatment: Viagra and similar drugs (Levitra, Cialis)

        • allows increased blood flow into the penis

      • other treatments: low-intensity shock-wave therapy

  • sexual attitudes and behavior

    • usually occurs less frequently in midlife than in early adulthood

    • middle-aged and older adults who had sex more frequently also had better overall cognitive functioning, especially working memory and executive function

    • past-year decline in sexual desire or frequency of sexual activities was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and lower quality of life

    • living with a spouse or partner increases the chance for people to engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40

    • premature ejaculation and erectile difficulties were the most common sexual problems of older men

    • lack of sexual nterest and lubrication difficulties were the most common in older women

    • a person’s health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity

      • level of sexual activity was associated with their phycial and mental health

      • social and relationship factors are also important

Cognitive Development

Intelligence

  • Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

    • John Horn: some abilities begin to decline in middle age while others increase

    • crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills

      • continues to increase in middle adulthood

    • fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason abstractly

      • begins to decline in middle adulthood

      • declined in individuals 65+ but not in those 45-60

      • differences might be due to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than age

  • The Seattle Longitudinal Study

    • highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities occurred in middle adulthood

    • numeric facility and perceptual speed declined in middle age

      • perceptual speed showed the earliest decline - begins in early adulthood

    • middle age was a time of peak intelligence for some aspects of both crystallized and fluid intelligence

    • lower level of cognitive functioning in early and middle adulthood is likely due to age-related neurobiological decline

    • longitudinal studies hold the key to determining age-related changes in cognitive functioning

    • middle age is the time when many cognitive skills peak

Information Processing

  • Speed of Information Processing

    • perceptual speed begins declining in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood

    • common assessment: reaction-time task

    • decline is not dramatic

  • Memory

    • verbal memory has shown a decline in middle age, especially when assessed in cross-sectional studies

    • memory declines at some point during this point of adult development

    • memory decline is either nonexistent or minimal in the early part of middle age but does occur in the latter part of middle age or in late adulthood

    • changes in working memory

      • more time is needed to learn new information

      • in late middle age, working memory capacity becomes more limited

    • memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies

    • having a higher level of education and engaging in frequent physical exercise were linked to less decline in middle-aged and older adults’ episodic memory

  • Expertise

    • because it takes so long to attain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood

    • expertise involves having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain

  • Practical Problem Solving

    • everyday problem solving is an important aspect of cognition

    • ability to solve practical problems improved through the forties and fifties as individuals accumulated practical experience

    • everyday problem solving showed an increase in performance from early adulthood to middle adulthood, with performance showing a decrease at about 50

    • fluid intelligence predicted performance on everyday problem solving in young adults but with increasing age, crystallized intelligence became a better predictor

Careers, Work, and Leisure

Work in Midlife

  • work is central during middle adulthood

  • many middle-aged adults reach their peak in position and earnings

  • multiple financial burdens

  • age-related declines occur in some occupations, but for most jobs, no differences have been found in work performance

  • quality of work done by employees in middle age is liked to how much their work is appreciated and how well they get along with their immediate supervisors

  • work ability in middle age is linked to mortality and disability 28 yrs later

  • couples increasingly have both spouses in the workforce who are expecting to retire

  • economic downturns and recessions in the US have forced some middle-aged individuals into premature retirement because of job loss and fear of not being able to reenter the workforce

    • may also result in accumulating insufficient financial resources to cover an increasingly long retirement period

Career Challenges and Changes

  • globalization has replaced what was primarily a white male workforce with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds

  • decline in defined-benefit pensions and increased uncertainty about the fate of heath insurance are decreasing the sense of personal control among middle-aged workers

    • many are delaying retirement

  • some midlife career changes are self-motivated, others are the consequence of losing one’s job

    • for many US workers 50 yrs and older, the decision to leave a job won’t be theirs

    • more than 50% of these workers are pushed out of longtime jobs before they choose to retire, suffering considerable financial damage

    • only 10% of these workers ever again earn as much as they did

  • cognitive factors earlier in development are linked to occupational attainment in middle age

    • task persistence at 13 yrs was related to occupational success in middle age

Leisure

  • leisure: pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing

  • top six regrets: one is not engaging in more leisure

  • midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure

  • engaging in less leisure-time activity in middle age was linked to increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood

  • if an adult develops leisure activities that can be continued into retirement, the transition from work to retirement can be less stressful

  • type of leisure activity can be linked to different outcomes

    • engaging in higher complexity of work before retirement was associated with a smaller decline in cognitive performance in retirement

  • after individuals experienced daily stressful events, if they engaged in more leisure time than usual on those days, the leisure time served as a positive coping strategy in improving their moods

Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life

Religion, Spirituality, and Adult Lives

  • religion: organized set of beliefs that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other

  • religiousness: degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in its prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers

  • spirituality: experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society

  • 92% of US adults said they believe in God and 50% reported that religion is very important to them

  • influence of religion and spirituality in people’s lives may change as they develop

  • women have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion and spirituality than men have

  • spirituality of women increased more than that of men in the second half of life

Religion, Spirituality, and Health

  • some cults and religious sects encourage behaviors that can be damaging to health

  • spirituality / religion is positively linked to health

  • various dimensions of religion and coping can help some individuals cope more effectively with challenges in their lives

Meaning in Life

  • three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility

    • spirituality: human being’s uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind

  • in middle adulthood, individuals begin to be faced with death more often

  • meaning-making coping is especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss

  • having a sense of meaning in life can lead to clearer guidelines for living one’s life and enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and reach goals

  • higher level of meaning in life is linked to better physical health

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