TOPIC LIST FOR NEXT WEEK'S TEST

Heuristics, Algorithms, Decision-Making Skills AND Cognitive Biases

Heuristics: mental shortcuts to solve complex tasks, (They do not guarantee a correct solution)

• One of heuristics’ problems is mental sets (the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems.)

• Functional Fixedness: The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.

• Can also contribute to stereotypes and prejudices 

Algorithms: a step-by-step approach; procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied

Decision-making Skills: involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them.

Cognitive Bias: a systematic error in thinking that occurs when people process and interpret information in their surroundings, influencing their decisions and judgments.

• Confirmation Bias: when you look for what you want to confirm

• Hindsight Bias: Tendency to second-guess a decision after the event has happened.

• Representative Bias: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match a particular prototype. 

- Eg. You might think an old man is nice because he reminds you of your grandfather) 

• Availability Bias: This is placing greater value on information that comes to your mind quickly. 

-  Eg. Thinking you will get bitten by a shark if you go in the ocean because you heard that someone got bit  a shark

Convergent and Divergent Thinking

Convergent thinking: narrow down to one solution; follows a logical set of steps to select the best solution from already-formulated ideas (using logic)

Divergent thinking: more ways to a solution; using new thoughts or ideas that are outside of the norm in order to solve problems. (using imagination)

Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence

Fluid Intelligence: Refers to our ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills.

• Decreases with age 

Crytsalized Intelligence: Involves using knowledge accumulated over time.

• Increases with age

*Major Intelligence Theories

Intelligence: Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

G factor (Charles Spearman): Proposes that one general intelligence influences performance across all mental tasks

• Controversial because not everyone will score the same on this one scale. People are smarter in certain areas and it is unfair to judge on one simple test.

Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner): argues that intelligence isn't a single ability but rather eight distinct and independent capacities.

• Some people have no language ability and it is unfair to judge them on one test in one field so this test judges them on their best trait

• Eight types of intelligence: Linguistic, logical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic

Tricarchic Theory of intelligence ( Robert Sternberg): defines intelligence as three interconnected abilities: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

• explains why some people excel academically but struggle in real-world situations, or vice versa

• bridges the gap between single general intelligence views (Spearman) and multiple distinct intelligences (Gardner)

Emotional Intelligence  (Daniel Goleman (Expanding on Salovey & Mayer)): Rationally smart people have trouble processing and managing information

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Intelligence: Proposes that “g” is comprised of multiple cognitive abilities that when taken as a whole produce “g.”

Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning- associates an involuntary response and a stimulus

• Neutral Stimulus, UCS, UCR, CS, CR

• Pavlov’s Dogs

Operant Conditioning- associates a voluntary behavior and a consequence (reinforcement and punishment)

• *Negative reinforcement is not punishment, it is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

• Extinction: Continuous reinforcement learn quickly but rapid extinction

• Partial Reinforcement

-  VR given after an unpredictable number of responses 

-  FR, given after a specific number of responses

- VI, given at unpredictable time intervals

- FI, given after a certain amount of time has passed

*Social-Cognitive Learning, including Observation-Imitation

Social Cognitive Learning Theory: People learn behaviors through observing others within their social environment.

• Proposed that observational learning required four processes: paying attention, being motivated to do the behavior, having the ability to replicate the behavior, and having the ability to remember the behavior.

Observation-Imitation: Literally just the process that goes into the social cognitive learning theory

*Cognitive Development Theories; Piaget's Stages and Vygotsky's ZPD

Piaget’s Stages: Theory that suggests children move through different stages of learning

Sensorimotor: Birth to 2 years

• Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

• Object permanence and Stranger anxiety

Pre-Operational: Ages 2 to 7

• Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

• Pretend play, Egocentrism, and Language development

Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11

• Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

• Conservation and Mathematical transformations

Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up

• Abstract reasoning

• Abstract logic and Potential for moral reasoning

Vygotsky (Zone of Proximal Development): Suggests that there is a gap (the zone) between what a child knows and does not know. It refers to the range of abilities a child can perform with the guidance of an expert, but they cannot perform it on their own yet.

• There are three stages of ZPD, a learner may fall into

  • Tasks a learner can't perform even with assistance

  • Tasks a learner can perform with assistance 

  • Tasks a learner can perform without assistance 

• Depending on the stage, there are different approaches to help the learner

Attachment Theories; Harlow Monkey Study and Ainsworth Strange Situation

Attachment Theory: Suggests that people are born with the need to forge bonds with caregivers. These relationships act as foundations or relationships later in life. 

Stages of Attachment:

• Pre-Attachment Stage: Birth to 3 months. Infants do not show any particular attachment to a specific caregiver. 

• Indiscriminate Attachment: 6 weeks to 7 months. Infants begin to show preference for primary and secondary caregivers. Trust is developed and they start to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people.

• Discriminate Attachment: 7 to 11 months of age. Infants show a strong attachment and preference for one specific caregiver. This is when separation and stranger anxiety become more present. 

• Multiple Attachments: After 9 months of age. Children begin to form strong emotional attachments with other caregivers beyond the primary attachment figure.

  • Ex: second parent, older siblings, and grandparents.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: A study that observed children between the ages of 12 months and 18 months and their response to a situation in which they were briefly left alone and then reunited with their mothers. 

• Four attachment styles were revealed: Secure attachment, ambivalent attachment, avoidant attachment, and disorganized attachment.

• Ambivalent Attachment: Children become very distressed when a parent leaves. They cannot depend on their primary caregiver to be there when they need them.

• Avoidant Attachment: Children avoid parents or caregivers and show no preference between a caregiver and a stranger.

• Disorganized Attachment: Children display a confusing mix of behavior. They usually seem disoriented, dazed, or confused and may avoid or resist their parent. This attachment is created from inconsistent caregiver behavior. Caregiver provides comfort and fear.

• Secure Attachment: Children who can depend on caregivers. Show distress when separated and joy when reunited but are still able to self regulate when the parent is gone because they know their caregiver will come back.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s Theory of Development: describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

• Each stage has a conflict that must be resolved to progress to the next stage

1. Trust v. Mistrust (0 to 1.5 y/o)- If needs are met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (1.5 to 3 y/o)- Toddlers learn to do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities 

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 y/o)- Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent 

• E.g.: a young child deciding to help set the table for dinner, feeling proud of themselves for taking action, but then being criticized by a parent for not doing it perfectly, leading to the child feeling guilty about their attempt to contribute.

4. Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12 y/o) - Children enjoy applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

5. Identity vs Role Confusion (12 to 18 y/o) - Teenagers gain a sense of self by forming an identity or they become confused about who they are

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19 to 40 y/o) - Young adults form close relationships and love or they feel isolated.

7. Generativity vs Stagnation (40 to 60 y/o) - Middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose.

8. Integrity vs. Despair (60 and up)- When reflecting on life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.

ACES and Trauma

ACEs: Adverse Childhood Experiences are traumatic events that occur before the age of 18 

Mental Health Impact: self-harm, depression, anxiety, suicide, etc.  

Physical Health Impact: ACEs can cause an increased risk of heart disease, cancer, lung disease, and liver disease.

Other Effects: PTSD, difficulty forming healthy relationships

Prevention: promoting antiviolence campaigns;  teaching positive parenting skills and socio-emotional learning; expanding childcare, preschool and ECE options

Coping: therapy, meditation, support groups, and exercise. 

Parenting Styles: Short- and Long-Term Impact

Authoritarian: A parenting style that involves the expectation for children to follow 

strict rules set by the parents. Failure to follow those rules results in punishment. There is 

no explanation provided behind these rules. These parents are not responsive and punish 

Mistakes.

Effects: Lead to obedient children, but also increased anxiety, lower 

self-reliance, increased lying to avoid punishment, and reduced motivation.

Authoritative: A parenting style that involves established rules and guidelines, children 

are expected to follow. But the parent is responsive and more nurturing. They provide 

structure, warmth, and support.

Effects: Positive independence, self-control, and self-regulation. Socially

 responsible, cooperative, and self-regulated children. Children typically result as 

happy, capable and successful and have higher levels of life satisfaction as they 

get older.

Permissive: A parenting style that involves very few demands of children. Children are rarely disciplined in this style because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. These parents prioritize being their child's friend instead of parent and rarely enforce rules and expectations. Children have the freedom to make their own decisions. Responsive but not demanding.

Effects: Self-sufficient and independent children. Rank low in happiness and 

self-regulation. More likely to engage in high-risk behaviors and tend to perform 

poorly in school.

Uninvolved: A parenting style that involves few demands, low responsiveness, and very 

little communication. This parent is detached from their child's life and only ensures a 

child's basic needs, but not any comfort or structure. 

Effects: Struggling in school, depression, worse social relationships, lack of 

self-control,  poor self-reliance, difficulty controlling emotions, and experiencing 

more anxiety.

Gender Identity, Norms, and Development

Gender Identity- someone's internal experience of gender and how they choose to express themselves externally

Gender Norms: the socially established expectations and beliefs about how individuals should behave based on their assigned gender

Gender Development

• Gender Consistency - The realization that gender does not change with age (happens at about 4 or 5)

• Gender Typing - the acquisition of a particular feminine or masculine role 

• Gender Schema Theory: The ability for children to create mental categories for masculinity and femininity 

• Social Learning Theory- theory that we learn certain social behaviors (including gender roles) by observing, imitating, and being reinforced/punished

• Gender Stereotypes - oversimplified beliefs about characteristics that all men and women are presumed to have

• Gender Role awareness - knowledge of what behavior is socially appropriate for each gender

Language Development

Innateness Theory of Language- children acquire language not only by imitating but also by following preprogrammed steps to acquire language.

• Globally, all children follow the same pattern of language acquisition.

Phoneme - the smallest distinctive sound unit

• The "m" sound in "mommy, The "k" sound in "cat, The "æ" vowel in "cat, and The "t" sound in "cat.

Morpheme- the smallest unit that carries meaning

• The word "hopelessness" contains three morphemes: "hope", "-less", and "-ness"

Grammar- a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand other

Semantics -  the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language.

Syntax-  the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

• Do you want to go to the store? vs. Store to go want to do you?

New Language- learning a new language gets harder with age

Stages of Early Language

NEW!!! -- Bronfenbrenner"s Ecological Model of Social Development*

Bronfenbrenner’s Model: emphasizes the importance of environmental factors and social influences in shaping development and behavior.

• Microsystem, Mesosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem, Exosystem