BIO EXAM FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Flashcard Set 1: What is Science?

Q: How do researchers study biology at different levels?
A: Researchers study biology at multiple levels: molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems.

Q: What is discovery-based science?
A: Discovery-based science involves observing and recording data without a specific hypothesis, leading to new knowledge based on patterns or relationships.

Q: What is hypothesis testing in science?
A: Hypothesis testing involves proposing a testable explanation (hypothesis) and conducting experiments to confirm or reject it.

Q: What is the scientific method?
A: The scientific method involves making observations, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

Q: What is the difference between a control group and an experimental group?
A: The control group is not exposed to the experimental treatment, while the experimental group is subjected to the treatment to observe its effects.

Q: What is a scientific theory? How is it different from a hypothesis and law?
A: A scientific theory is a well-supported explanation of natural phenomena, while a hypothesis is a proposed explanation and a law describes a universal principle.

Flashcard Set 2: Chemistry in Biology

Q: What is the chemical basis of life?
A: Life depends on elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others that form molecules essential for biological functions.

Q: What are the characteristics of subatomic particles?
A: Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a negative charge. Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, and electrons orbit the nucleus.

Q: What are orbitals, electron shells, and valence electrons?
A: Orbitals are regions where electrons are likely to be found. Electron shells are layers around the nucleus where electrons are located. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell.

Q: How do you calculate the total number of subatomic particles?
A: The number of protons equals the atomic number, neutrons are found by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass, and electrons equal the number of protons in a neutral atom.

Q: What elements make up most of the mass of living organisms?
A: The elements are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S).

Q: What are atomic interactions that form molecules?
A: Atoms interact through ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds to form molecules.

Q: What is electronegativity and how does it affect bonding?
A: Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons. It determines whether a bond is polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing).

Q: What are the chemical properties of water critical for life?
A: Water has high cohesion, adhesion, a high specific heat, and is a solvent for many substances, making it essential for life processes.

Q: What are acidic and basic conditions?
A: Acidic solutions have a pH less than 7, and basic solutions have a pH greater than 7. Buffers help maintain pH balance in organisms.

Q: What is the difference between organic and inorganic molecules?
A: Organic molecules contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, while inorganic molecules may not contain carbon or may lack the carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Q: Why are carbon atoms important for life?
A: Carbon atoms form stable, diverse bonds and are the backbone of organic molecules, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Q: What are macromolecules and how are they synthesized or broken down?
A: Macromolecules are large molecules made from smaller subunits (monomers) via dehydration (synthesis) or hydrolysis (breakdown) reactions.

Q: What are the major organic molecules needed for life?
A: The major organic molecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, each with specific functions in living organisms.

Flashcard Set 3: Cell Biology

Q: What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
A: Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Q: How do plant and animal cells differ?
A: Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large vacuoles, while animal cells lack these structures.

Q: What are the four interacting systems in a eukaryotic cell?
A: The four systems are the nucleus, cytosol, endomembrane system, and semiautonomous organelles (mitochondria and plastids).

Q: What is the structure and function of the plasma membrane?
A: The plasma membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer and regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Q: What is the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?
A: Simple diffusion moves molecules through the membrane without help, while facilitated diffusion uses membrane proteins to help move molecules.

Q: What is osmosis?
A: Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Flashcard Set 4: Metabolism and Cellular Respiration

Q: What are the four stages of cellular respiration?
A: The four stages are glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain and chemiosmosis).

Q: What are the reactants and products of cellular respiration?
A: Reactants: glucose and oxygen. Products: ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.

Q: How does photosynthesis power the biosphere?
A: Photosynthesis converts solar energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen, which sustain life on Earth.

Q: Where does photosynthesis take place in plant cells?
A: Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, in the thylakoid membranes (light reactions) and the stroma (Calvin cycle).

Q: What are the two phases of photosynthesis?
A: The two phases are the light reactions (producing ATP and NADPH) and the Calvin cycle (producing glucose).

Q: What is a photosystem?
A: A photosystem is a complex of proteins and chlorophyll molecules that absorb light energy and use it to drive the light reactions.

Q: What is the difference between linear and cyclic electron flow?
A: Linear electron flow produces both ATP and NADPH, while cyclic electron flow produces only ATP.

Flashcard Set 5: Genetics and Cell Division

Q: What are the key criteria that genetic material must fulfill?
A: Genetic material must store information, replicate accurately, allow for variation, and be passed on to offspring.

Q: What are the structural features of DNA?
A: DNA has a double helix structure made of nucleotides, with sugar-phosphate backbones and nitrogenous bases (A-T, G-C) forming the rungs.

Q: What is the function of DNA polymerase in replication?
A: DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand during replication, following the base-pairing rules.

Q: What is the difference between the leading and lagging strands during DNA replication?
A: The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand is synthesized in Okazaki fragments.

Q: What is the difference between cell division and the cell cycle?
A: Cell division refers to the process of a cell splitting into two daughter cells, while the cell cycle includes all events leading up to and following cell division.

Q: What happens during mitosis?
A: Mitosis is the process of cell division where a single cell divides to form two genetically identical daughter cells.

Q: What is the role of the cell cycle in growth and development?
A: The cell cycle controls cell division and replication, allowing for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.

Q: What is cancer and how is it related to the cell cycle?
A: Cancer occurs when the cell cycle is uncontrolled, leading to abnormal cell division and tumor formation.

Q: What is meiosis and how does it promote genetic diversity?
A: Meiosis is the process of cell division that reduces chromosome number by half, producing gametes with unique genetic combinations.

Flashcard Set 6: Mendelian Genetics

Q: What did Gregor Mendel discover?
A: Mendel discovered the basic principles of inheritance, including the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment.

Q: What is the Law of Segregation?
A: The Law of Segregation states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation, so each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

Q: What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
A: The Law of Independent Assortment states that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.

Q: What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?
A: The chromosome theory of inheritance states that genes are located on chromosomes and the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis explains inheritance patterns.

Q: What is a genotype?
A: A genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, representing the alleles it inherits.

Q: What is a phenotype?
A: A phenotype is the observable characteristics or traits of an organism, determined by its genotype and environmental factors.

Flashcard Set 7: Evolution and Natural Selection

Q: What is evolution?
A: Evolution is the change in the genetic composition of a population over time due to factors like mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift.

Q: How did Darwin contribute to the theory of evolution?
A: Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection, explaining that organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Q: What is natural selection?
A: Natural selection is the process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on those traits to the next generation.

Q: What is genetic drift?
A: Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies in a population, especially in small populations.

Q: What is the difference between stabilizing, directional, and disruptive selection?
A: Stabilizing selection favors average traits, directional selection favors one extreme, and disruptive selection favors both extremes.

Q: What evidence supports the theory of evolution?
A: Evidence includes fossil records, comparative anatomy (homologies), molecular biology (DNA), and biogeography.

Flashcard Set 8: Microevolution and Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Q: What are the conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
A: The conditions are no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, large population size, and no gene flow.

Q: What causes microevolution?
A: Microevolution is caused by mutations, natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift, and non-random mating.

Q: What is gene flow?
A: Gene flow is the movement of alleles between populations, increasing genetic diversity within populations.

Q: What is sexual selection?
A: Sexual selection is a type of natural selection where traits that increase an individual's chances of mating are favored.

Q: What is the founder effect?
A: The founder effect occurs when a small group establishes a new population, reducing genetic diversity.

Q: What is the bottleneck effect?
A: The bottleneck effect occurs when a population's size is dramatically reduced, leading to a loss of genetic diversity.