Social Psychology Overview

Definition: The scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others and societal/cultural norms.

Person Perception

Process of forming impressions of others during interactions. People utilize various cues to deduce characteristics of others. Many impressions can be inaccurate and are influenced by biases and fallacies.

Attribution Theory

Attribution: The process of inferring the reasons behind someone's behavior.

• Internal vs. External Attributions

  • Internal (Dispositional): Belief that behavior stems from inherent personality traits.

    • Example: “They passed the exam because they are smart.”

  • External (Situational): Belief that behavior is shaped by environmental factors.

    • Example: “They failed the exam because the teacher was unhelpful.”

Dimensions of Attribution

• Stable vs. Unstable: Attributes can be stable (like intelligence) or unstable (like mood).

  • Example of stable: “His performance is due to his consistent ability.”

  • Example of unstable: “She had a bad day.”

• Dispositional vs. Situational:

  • Dispositional: Traits such as judgment and willpower.

  • Situational: Factors like social structures and circumstances.

Explanatory Styles

• Optimistic Explanatory Style: Views setbacks as temporary and external.

• Pessimistic Explanatory Style: Views setbacks as permanent and internal.

• Factors influencing explanatory styles:

  • Permanence - Is the cause seen as lasting?

  • Pervasiveness - Does this explanation apply broadly?

  • Personalization - Is blame taken personally?

• Impact: Pessimistic views can lead to increased stress and hinder mindset shifts.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate personal dispositions when analyzing others’ behaviors.

• Example: Underestimating the impact of the waitress's bad day on her performance.

Actor-Observer Bias

Concept: Tendency to see oneself as affected by external factors, but to see others as a product of internal qualities.

• Example: Blaming own mistakes on situational factors, while attributing others' mistakes to their character.

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors (skills, efforts) and failures to external factors (bad luck, circumstances).

• Example: Claiming a successful race was due to training hard, while blaming a loss on an unfair referee.

Perception of Control

• Internal Locus of Control: Belief that one controls their own fate, influencing how they interpret failures.

• External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are determined by external factors, like luck or other people.

Other Influences on Person Perception

• Mere Exposure Effect: Increased exposure leads to increased liking.

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations can lead to behaviors that confirm those expectations.

• Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself based on comparisons with others:

  • Upward Comparison: Comparing to someone better can motivate or induce negativity.

  • Downward Comparison: Comparing to someone worse can improve self-esteem.

  • Relative Deprivation: Feeling worse off than others, leading to frustration.

Overcoming Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination

• Prejudice: Attitudinal bias based on group membership.

  • Examples: Race, gender, socioeconomic status.

• Stereotype: Generalization about a group that doesn’t consider individuality. Can have some truth but often leads to exaggeration.

Implicit vs. Explicit Attitudes

• Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious evaluations formed through socialization, influencing behavior automatically.

• Explicit Attitudes: Clearly expressed beliefs and feelings towards others.

In-Group vs. Out-Group Dynamics

• In-Group: A group one identifies with and feels loyalty towards.

• Out-Group: A group viewed as different or in opposition.

• In-Group Bias: Favoring one's own group while stereotyping other groups negatively.

Just World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve, potentially leading to victim-blaming.

Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism

• Ethnocentrism: Belief in the superiority of one's own culture.

• Cultural Relativism: Perspective that cultures should be understood based on their own context and values.

Multiculturalism

Emphasizes the value and importance of diverse cultures coexisting and promotes understanding of cultural differences.

Key Experiments in Social Psychology

Robber’s Cave Experiment

Studied intergroup conflict by putting two groups against each other, later fostering cooperation through shared goals.

Contact Theory

Suggests that stereotypes and prejudice decrease as contact with out-groups increases.

Conformity and Obedience

• Asch's Conformity Experiment (1951): Tested how peer pressure could lead individuals to conform to a group's incorrect answer, demonstrating the power of social influence. Participants often gave clearly wrong answers due to group consensus.

• Milgram's Obedience Study (1961): Investigated how far individuals would go in obeying an authority figure even when it involved harming another person. Around 65% of participants continued to administer electric shocks despite hearing screams from the learner, highlighting the influence of authority.

• Stanford Prison Experiment (1971): Conducted by Zimbardo, this study examined the psychological effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment. Participants adopted roles of guards and prisoners, leading to abusive behavior and psychological distress, raising ethical concerns about the conduct of experiments involving human subjects.

Group Psychology Dynamics

• Individualism vs. Collectivism: Cultural influences affecting behavior towards self vs. group.

• Social Facilitation: Improved performance in the presence of others.

• Social Loafing: Individuals exerting less effort when in a group.

• Bystander Effect: Phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present.