Exam Study Notes

Ancient Rome

• Geography and Founding

  • Geographic Features:

    • Surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, and the Adriatic Sea.

    • The Alps serve as a natural border to the north, providing protection from invaders.

  • Mythical Founding:

    • Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the god Mars, were saved by a wolf.

    • They eventually founded the city of Rome after Romulus defeated Remus in a dispute.

• Expansion and Conflict

  • Early Republic:

    • Initially a monarchy, Rome transitioned to a republic in 509 BCE after the overthrow of Tarquin the Proud.

    • Significant division between the Patricians (wealthy landowners) and Plebeians.

    • Patricians held most of the power.

  • The Punic Wars:

    • A series of three wars between Rome and Carthage from 264 BCE to 146 BCE.

    • Rome emerged victorious, expanding its dominance across the Mediterranean.

• Julian Era and His Successors

  • Rise of Julius Caesar:

    • Julius Caesar, initially a general, took control as consul and later dictator.

    • His assassination in 44 BCE led to the end of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire under Augustus.

  • Prominent Emperors:

    • Key figures include Trajan, who expanded social welfare, and Hadrian, who fortified Roman boundaries with constructions like Hadrian's Wall.

• Golden Age of Rome

  • Caesar Augustus Rule:

    • Marked the beginning of a 150-year peace known as the Pax Romana.

    • This era saw the expansion of the empire, improvement in taxation systems, and construction of significant infrastructures like aqueducts and public buildings.

• Christianity and Its Impact

  • Spread of Christianity:

    • Jesus of Nazareth preached love and forgiveness, attracting a large following.

    • Post his execution by the Roman authorities, Christianity continued to spread, facing severe persecution.

    • Eventually becoming the empire's official religion under Constantine.

• Fall of Rome

  • Reasons for Decline:

    • Economic troubles such as inflation and debasement of currency.

    • Overexpansion, reliance on mercenaries, and a series of weak leaders.

    • Led to Rome's downfall in 476 CE with the sacking by Germanic tribes.

Feudal Japan

• Geographic Context and Early History

  • Geographic Features:

    • Japan comprises over 4,000 islands, with the four main ones being Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.

  • Early settlements:

    • Date back to 30,000 BCE, with significant cultural and technological advancements beginning in 300 BCE.

• Social Structure and Feudal System

  • Hierarchy and Power:

    • The emperor, though revered, held no real power.

    • Power was concentrated in the hands of the shogun.

    • Below the shogun were daimyos, served by samurais who adhered to the Bushido Code.

  • Samurai and Bushido:

    • Samurai were committed to personal honor and loyalty to their lords.

    • Those who lost their masters became ronin, living as mercenaries or seeking new employment.

• Cultural Aspects and Beliefs

  • Cultural Practices:

    • Art forms such as Haiku poetry, woodblock printing, and Noh theatre flourished.

    • Cuisine relied heavily on rice, fish, and vegetables.

  • Religious Beliefs:

    • Indigenous Shintoism emphasized a deep respect for nature.

    • Zen Buddhism, which focused on meditation and discipline, also gained prominence.

Islamic Achievements

• Scientific and Mathematical Innovations

  • Numerical Systems:

    • Islamic scholars adopted and disseminated the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which included the concept of zero.

  • Algebra and Chemistry:

    • Contributions include solving linear and quadratic equations.

    • Discoveries in chemical compounds.

• Cultural Contributions

  • Literature and Art:

    • Islamic art used geometric and floral patterns.

    • Literary works like The Arabian Nights are significant cultural contributions.

  • Advancements in Navigation:

    • Innovations like the improved astrolabe helped sailors determine direction and location accurately.

• Architectural Marvels

  • Mosques and Palaces:

    • Islamic architecture included domes, tile work, and geometric designs, seen in structures like the Hagia Sophia.

The Age of Exploration

• Beginnings of Exploration

  • Motivations:

    • Driven by the need for new trade routes, desire for Asian goods, spread of Christianity, and pursuit of wealth and expansion.

• Key Figures

  • Prince Henry the Navigator:

    • Established navigation schools in Portugal.

  • Vasco da Gama:

    • First European to reach India via the Cape of Good Hope.

  • Christopher Columbus:

    • Reached the Caribbean in 1492, funded by Spain.

  • Amerigo Vespucci:

    • Recognized the New World, leading to its name.

  • Ferdinand Magellan:

    • Led the first circumnavigation of the globe.

• Notable Explorers

  • Juan Ponce de Leon:

    • Explored Florida.

  • Hernando de Soto:

    • Found the Mississippi River.

  • John Cabot:

    • Claimed land for England.

  • Henry Hudson:

    • Discovered Hudson Bay.

  • Sieur de La Salle:

    • Claimed the Mississippi region for France.

• Conquests and Empires

  • Hernán Cortés:

    • Conquered the Aztecs.

  • Francisco Pizarro:

    • Defeated the Incas.

• Encomienda System

  • Definition:

    • Spanish system to regulate Native labor.

  • Social Structure:

    • Encomenderos at the top, enslaved Native Americans at the bottom.

African Geography and Early Societies

• Geographic Overview

  • Scope:

    • Second-largest continent with over 1,000 ethnic groups.

  • Features:

    • Sahara Desert, Savanna, Congo River, Nile River, Lake Victoria, and Kalahari Desert.

• Early African Societies

  • Organization:

    • Clan-based, often nomadic.

    • Animism was common.

    • Oral history preserved by griots.

• Notable Civilizations

  • Nok:

    • Known for iron smelting.

  • Aksum:

    • Dominated Red Sea trade under King Ezana.

  • Ghana Empire:

    • Wealthy from gold and salt trade.

  • Mali Empire:

    • Flourished under Mansa Musa.

  • Songhai Empire:

    • Controlled trade; fell due to firearms.

  • Great Zimbabwe:

    • Known for stone architecture and trade; declined from soil exhaustion.

The Enlightenment

• Introduction

  • Intellectual movement of the 17th–18th centuries focusing on reason and logic.

• Key Philosophers

  • Thomas Hobbes:

    • Advocated a social contract for order.

  • John Locke:

    • Promoted natural rights and right to overthrow governments.

  • Montesquieu:

    • Proposed separation of powers.

  • Voltaire:

    • Championed freedom of speech and religion.

  • Rousseau:

    • Advocated for general will and direct democracy.

  • Beccaria:

    • Opposed torture and cruel punishment.

  • Mary Wollstonecraft:

    • Fought for women’s rights and education.

• Spread of Ideas

  • Salons:

    • Places for intellectual discussion.

  • Diderot’s Encyclopedia:

    • Summarized Enlightenment thought.

• Art and Music

  • Baroque gave way to Neoclassicism.

  • Rise of Mozart and Beethoven.

• Legacy

  • Influenced American and French Revolutions.

  • Led to modern governance concepts: progress, secularism, individualism.

Early Civilizations of the Americas

• Migration Theories

  • Via Bering land bridge, coastal boats, or Pacific crossings.

• Agricultural Beginnings

  • Farming began by 8000 B.C.E.

  • Maize and beans by 3000 B.C.E.

• Mesoamerican Civilizations

  • Olmec:

    • 1500–400 B.C.E., known for carved heads and trade.

  • Teotihuacan:

    • 400–600 C.E., large urban center.

  • Maya:

    • Peaked 325–900 C.E., known for math, writing, and calendars.

    • - Renowned for their astronomical and mathematical achievements, complex writing systems, and

    • ceremonial centers like Tikal .

    • - Mayan society had a large priestly class maintaining their calendar and writing system .

    • - Decline between 800 and 900 C.E. is attributed to trade disruptions, agricultural issues, and

    • environmental factors like drought .

    • Toltecs and Aztecs

    • - Toltecs (900 - 1156 C.E.) were known for their militaristic and artistic achievements, heavily

    • influencing later cultures including the Aztecs .

    • - Aztecs (Mexica) founded Tenochtitlan around 1325 C.E., which became a major urban center

    • by 1519 .

    • - Aztec society was highly stratified with a strong emphasis on religious practices, including human

    • sacrifices .

    • Moche and Inca Civilizations

    • - Moche (200 - 700 C.E.) were known for their irrigation techniques, theocratic society, and gold

    • craftsmanship .

    • - Inca Empire, expanded by Pachacuti from 1438 - 1471, was known for its centralized

    • government, extensive road networks, and terraces farming .

    • - The Inca practiced a form of "Inca socialism," using forced labor for large projects .

    • Conclusion

    • The early civilizations of the Americas were rich and varied, each developing unique systems of

    • agriculture, social structure, religion, and technology. From the Olmecs to the Inca, these societies left

    • enduring legacies that shaped the cultural landscape of the Americas long before European contact.

    •