M

Apartheid - Paper 1

1948–1964

Petty Apartheid

Baaskap (“boss rule”)

  • Economic and political domination

  • Focused on specific issues and “overly fussy” about details

Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949)

  • 1st major NP passed apartheid law

  • Supplemented by Immorality Act (1950)

    • Extramarital sex between Whites and Non-whites prohibited

    • Enforced through police raiding homes at night

    • Africans faced heavier punishments than Whites

Population Registration Act (1950)

  • Race Classification Board oversaw classification and disputes

  • White, Coloured, and Bantu (“Black African”) on IDs

  • Indians later distinguished within Coloured group in 1959

  • Divisions unclear – Some reclassified multiple times through tests

    • Linguistics, skull measurements, and “pencil test” in hair

    • “Passing” and recessive genetics tests separated families

Suppression of Communism Act (1950)

  • CPSA illegal

  • Anything against apartheid gov’t essentially illegal

  • Labeled Chief Luthuli as a communist

The Group Areas Act (1950)

  • PM Malan argued it was the “essence of apartheid”

  • Origin in 1947 Sauer Report

    • Africans were rural people & should only be in cities if economically useful to Whites

    • Also used against Coloured shopkeepers

    • ¼ Coloureds and 1/6 of Indians shopkeepers pushed to outer suburbs

ANC Program of Action

  • Called for May Day stay-at-home strikes in 1950

  • Coordinated with SACP

    • ½ of Johannesburg Blacks refused to work – 18 killed in police breakup

Native Laws Amendment Act (1952)

  • Only Blacks who lived & worked in cities for at least 15 years allowed to stay

Bantu Authorities Act (1951)

  • Created Natives Representative Council

    • Elected national body that “represented” all Africans

    • Government hand-selected those up for election

Pass Laws Act (1952)

  • AKA The Natives Abolition of Passes and Coordination of Documents Act of 1952

  • Comprehensive 96-page reference books

    • Employment, taxes, police interactions, racial group, etc.

  • Required for city travel and work residency

  • State surveillance of Black population

  • Any White person could ask for documents

Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953)

  • City centers now White-only

  • Created separate entrances, waiting rooms, service counters

  • Separate parks, pools, train platforms

  • City center hotels, restaurants, museums, theaters, libraries: White-only

ANC’s Program of Economic Advancement (1953)

  • Push to gain legitimacy with poorer Blacks

  • Make ANC less elitist

Defiance Campaign 1952

Response to Pass Laws Act & Dutch arrival (1652) anniversary

  • More radical phase based on Youth League’s Program of Action (1949)

  • Past methods unsuccessful

  • Meant to force repeal of apartheid by:

    • Harnessing political potential of masses via civil disobedience

    • Burned pass books, used segregated facilities, entered White-only areas

    • Highlighted brutality of system to the world

    • Stretched legal system’s limits via jail packing

  • Over 8,300 arrests & fines in July/August in Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth, East London

  • National Action Committee (NAC) created to coordinate with SAIC & Franchise Action Council (FRAC)

  • Mandela was volunteer-in-chief

26 June protests

  • 2nd anniversary of Day of Protest deaths of 19 activists

  • Pushed for repeal of six unjust laws via planned general strikes:

    • Pass Laws Act, Group Areas Act, Suppression of Communism Act, Bantu Authorities Act, Separate Representation of Voters Act, Stock Limitations Act

  • Small defiance groups organized by Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Moses Kotane, JB Marks

  • Women’s League and Black Sash (White women’s org) key to movement

  • State response:

    • Criminal Law Amendment Act (1953): Whipping, longer sentences

    • Banned individuals via Suppression of Communism Act

      • Included Mandela, Sisulu, Luthuli, others

Successes

  • 1st large coordination with other groups

  • Set stage for mass movement: ANC grew to 100,000

  • International legitimacy: UN Commission on the Racial Situation in the Union of South Africa

Failures

  • No repeal of laws

  • Gov’t more repressive (esp. post-1953 election)

  • Strikes didn’t occur, violence grew beyond ANC control

  • Low participation by rural, poor Blacks or Coloreds

  • Liberal Whites viewed negatively

Petty/Grand Apartheid

Bantu Education Act (1953)

  • Different school boards & curricula per race

  • Black education under H.F. Verwoerd

    • Basic literacy/numeracy + technical skills (domestic, mining, manufacturing)

    • Mother-tongue in elementary; English & Afrikaans after

    • Only 3-hour classes, limited materials

    • 85% Black teachers unqualified

  • Purpose:

    • Create subservience

    • Separate evolution of Africans

    • Implied African culture value but viewed Africans as backward

    • (Christian nationalism)

  • ANC boycott in April 1955 largely ineffective

  • Steve Biko’s Black Consciousness Movement: “Black is beautiful”

    • Called for self-reliance and pride

    • Biko beaten to death in police custody, 1977

Grand Apartheid

Grand apartheid initiated by HF Verwoerd

  • More sophisticated

  • Territorial segregation & African “independence” from SA

  • Moral legitimacy amid domestic/international pressure

Natives Resettlement Act (1954) & Group Areas Development Act (1955)

  • Forced removal from Sophiatown (near Johannesburg)

    • Blacks owned property

    • Cultural/political hub via bars/music halls

  • Soweto grew to over 2 million people

    • “Matchbox” homes, no toilets/running water

    • 7–14 per home; low infrastructure, education; high commute cost

  • Area replaced by Afrikaner suburb: Triomf

ANC Resist Apartheid Campaign (July 1954)

  • Response to Western Areas Removal Scheme & Sophiatown evictions

  • Luthuli under house arrest, 2-year ban

    • Unable to give address

  • “We shall not move”

  • Failed: Poor Blacks already unable to pay rent to Black landlords

Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act (1959)

  • Gov’t negated political responsibility for Africans

  • Blacks not South African citizens

  • Divided into 8 ethnic groups under White commissioner-generals

  • Transkei Constitution Act (1963): Kaiser Matanzima (Xhosa Chief) as leader

  • Elections maintained Pretoria control (security, foreign relations, banking)

  • Transkei “independent” in 1976

    • Only Israel & Taiwan recognized

  • Bantustans:

    • 13% land

    • 55% population

    • Poor, overcrowded, economically weak

Congress of the People (1955)

  • Created to:

    • Form single popular front across races

    • Expand ANC with the poor

    • Draft Freedom Charter (constitution for democratic SA)

  • Proposed by ZK Matthews & Chief Luthuli (1953)

  • Joined: SAIC, Colored People’s Congress, SACP, Congress of Democrats (left-wing Whites), ANC

  • Later joined by South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU)

  • Held listening meetings nationwide

  • Grievances & signatures for Million Signatures Campaign

The Freedom Charter (June 25/26 1955)

  • Read at Kliptown

    • Luthuli & Matthews under house arrest; Mandela, Sisulu banned

  • Called for:

    • End of apartheid

    • Non-racial, democratic gov’t

    • Equitable wealth/resource distribution

  • Armed police raided, arrested delegates, seized documents

Treason Trial (1956–1961)

  • Removed ANC leaders (Luthuli, Mandela)

  • PAC formed under Sobukwe (1959)

  • All acquitted through lawyer Bram Fischer (SACP)

Alexandra Bus Boycott (Jan 1957)

  • Causes:

    • New compulsory passes for women

    • Sophiatown evictions

    • Pre-1948 boycott success

    • PUTCO fare raised by a penny (1 month salary/yr)

  • Protest: “Azikhwelwa!” (“We will not ride”)

  • Led by Oliver Tambo’s Alexandra People’s Transport Action Committee

  • Spread to East Rand, Pretoria townships, Soweto

  • 70,000 marched for 12 weeks

  • Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce subsidized PUTCO

  • White sympathy & media coverage

Sharpeville Massacre (March 21 1960)

  • Origins:

    • 1959 ANC/PAC split

    • Sobukwe: Self-reliance, African beliefs

    • PAC hijacked ANC campaigns

  • 5,000 demonstrators demanded arrest outside police station

  • Chain reaction: officers fired into crowd for 2 minutes

  • 69 killed (10 children), 186 injured

    • Dead were running away

Government response

  • Verwoerd claimed majority supported apartheid

  • Protestors coerced by ANC/PAC

  • Declared state of emergency (30 March)

    • More protests & deaths

    • Thousands of ANC & PAC leaders arrested

    • Political meetings banned

  • First international sanctions despite U.S./UK objections

  • South Africa exited British Commonwealth (1961)

  • ANC & PAC outlawed (Unlawful Organizations Act)

  • Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) formed in 1961 (Mandela, Sisulu, Tambo, others)

MK (Umkhonto we Sizwe)

  • National High Command: Mandela, Sisulu, Joe Slovo, others

  • Regional commands → cell cadres

  • Included SACP members

  • Sabotage: power stations, pylons, post offices, police stations, tax offices

  • Rural guerrilla campaigns

  • Planned agitation & strikes failed

  • Sabotage slowed post-Sabotage Act (1962)

    • Punishment: 5 yrs to death penalty

Rivonia Trial (1963–1964)

  • Liliesleaf Farm safehouse (Rivonia, Johannesburg)

  • Mandela (“The Black Pimpernel”) arrested Aug 1962

  • Raid found Sisulu & “Operation Mayibuye” plans

    • Called for countryside guerrilla war

  • Mandela + 10 charged with treason under 1962 Sabotage Act

  • Pleaded guilty to sabotage to show democratic struggle

  • UN Security Council condemned trial

    • U.S., France, UK, Brazil abstained

  • All sentenced to life at Robben Island

  • Oliver Tambo became ANC/MK leader in exile (Zambia)

  • Biko’s SASO & Black Consciousness Movement continued to 1976 Soweto Uprising