dialect: a regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation
speakers of one dialect can understand speakers of other dialects
dialects reflect distinctive features of environments that people live in
isogloss: a boundary that separates regions in which different language usages predominate
migration to other locations, various dialects may develop
major differences in US dialects originated because of differences in dialects among the original settlers
New England
inhabited almost entirely by settlers from England
2/3s were Puritans from East Anglia (southeastern England)
only a few came from the north of England
Southeastern
1/2 came from southeastern England
represented a diversity of social-class backgrounds
Midlands
more diverse
early settlers were predominantly Quakers from the north of England
Scots and Irish arrived
also attracted German, Dutch, and Swedish immigrants
more differences between Midlands and the other settlements because most settlers came from the north of England or from other countries
a fourth dialect region was developed in the West
mass media influences the adoption of the same words throughout the country, but dialect differences still persist
Northeast + Southwest → soda
Midwest + Great Plains + Northwest → pop
Southerners → coke
regional pronunciation differences are more familiar to us than word differences
it is harder to draw precise isoglosses for the pronunciations
northeastern dialect drops the /r/ sound, due to its background from England
West and Midlands pronounce similarly because original west settlers were from the Midland
the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons spoke dialects of Old English
Kentish in the southeast
West Saxon in the southwest
Mercian in the center of the island
Northumbrian in the north
standard language: the form of a language used for official government business, education, and mass communications
in languages with multiple dialects, one made be used as the standard language
Received Pronunciation (RP): the dialect of English associated with upper-class Britons living in London and now considered standard in the UK
dialect used by upper-class residents in London, Cambridge, and Oxford
diffusion of RP was encouraged by the printing press
grammar books and dictionaries established spelling and grammar based on the London dialect
taught in schools throughout the country
regional differences still exist
Northern
Midland
Southern
Southwestern
Southeastern
isoglosses between English dialects are moving due to patterns of migration
English immigrants to US spoke the dialect they used in England at the time
England and US were separated by the Atlantic Ocean, causing differences as time passed on as few people could cross to influence each other
American settlers encountered new objects and experiences
contained new physical features, within needed names
large forests and mountains
new animals
Indigenous Americans influenced American English
canoe
moccasin
squash
new inventions appeared, and different names were given on different sides of the Atlantic
elevator (America) = lift (England)
hood of a car (America) = bonnet (England)
trunk of a car (America) = boot (England)
Noah Webster, creator of American dictionary and grammar books, wanted to develop a uniquely American dialect of English
wanted to establish a national language, reduce cultural dependence on England, and inspire national pride
colonists began to pronounce words differently from the British
British
some words are pronounced with an /ah/ rather than /a/
eliminate r sound except before vowels
Americans
pronounce unaccented syllables with more clarity
secretary and necessary have 4 syllables compared to 3 in British
pronunciation has changed more in England than in US
letters a and r are pronounced in the US more similarly to how they were pronounced in Britain in the 1600s, when settlers arrived
English immigrants didn’t speak “proper” English because they weren’t drawn from the English upper classes
other languages also have different dialects
distinct Romance languages evolved over time
numerous dialects existed within each province
creation of standard nation languages occured relatively recently
Spain contained many dialects during the Middle Ages
Castilian
arose in the 800s in Old Castile (north-central part of the country)
diffused south over centuries, as independent kingdoms were unified
Spain grew to its approximate present boundaries when the Kingdom of Castile and Leon merged with the Kingdom of Aragon
Castilian became the official language
dialects survived in secluded rural areas
Aragon
Navarre
Leon
Asturias
Santander
Portuguese developed as a separate language because of Portugal’s isolation
Spanish and Portuguese became worldwide due to colonial activity
most speakers live outside of Europe
Western Hemisphere Portuguese and Spanish are different from Europe
Spanish Royal Academy meet in Madrid to clarify language rules, and added hundreds of new words originating in regional dialects of Spain or the Indian languages of Latin America
Portuguese speaking countries agreed to standardize how their common language is written
people in Portugal are upset that the new standard language more closely resembled the Brazilian version
eliminates some accent marks
tildes
cedillas
circumflexes
hyphens
thousands of new Brazilian words
several languages in Italy were traditionally classified as dialects of Italian, but now are different enough to be different languages
Emiliano-Romagnolo
Liguria
Lombard
Napoletano-Calebrese
Piemontese
Sicilian
Venetian
Catalan was once a dialect, but now is a separate Romance language
traced to Vulgar Latin
Balear is a dialect of Catalan spoken in the Balearic Islands
Valencian is controversial
considered a dialect of Catalan by linguists
people in Valencia consider it a separate language because it has words derived from people who lived there before the Roman conquest
debated on whether its a dialect of Portuguese or a separate language
Academy of Galician Language considers it a separate language and symbol of cultural independence
Galician Association of the Language consider it a dialect because as a language it would be relegated to a minor and obscure status, while as a dialect it can help to influence Portuguese
generally classified as a dialect of Romanian
official language of Moldova
written in Cyrillic letters
was a part of Soviet Union
Romanian is written in Roman letters
creole (creolized language): a language that results from the mixing of a colonizer’s language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated
examples
French Creole
Papiamento (creolized Spanish)
Portuguese Creole