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Costs and Benefits of Nationalism for Ordinary People

• Nationalism emerged as a challenge for leaders in the 1870s to unite diverse populations.

• Political leaders faced the dilemma of encouraging national identity among citizens.

• National symbols (flags, anthems) and institutions helped foster a sense of belonging, but some groups, like minorities, were marginalized.

National Unification Examples

• Italy: Only 2% spoke the future official Italian language; regional loyalties complicated unity.

• Germany: Regional and religious divisions also interfered with national cohesion.

• France: Approximately 50% of the population spoke the official French language. Rural areas maintained regional allegiances over national loyalty.

National Integration Measures

• Centralized institutions: Military conscription and compulsory education promoted patriotism.

• Economic integration through common currency and improved infrastructure reduced regional differences.

• Literacy increased, enabling citizens to engage with national history and politics.

• Intellectual promotion: Scholars like Heinrich von Treitschke pushed for national pride based on historical and cultural narratives.

The Feminist Movement

• Women faced discrimination in education and employment, leading to demands for equality and legal rights.

• Middle-class feminists sought legal rights, education access, and the vote.

• Key Victories:

  • 1882: English married women gained full property rights.

  • German women's groups significantly influenced laws by 1913.

• Pre-WWI militant suffrage movements in Britain highlighted struggles for voting rights.

Higher Education Access

• Significant progress in women's access to higher education throughout Europe by the early 20th century.

• socialist women leaders focused on labor rights for working-class women.

• Overall, progress was institutionally slow, with many rights granted post-WWI.

Nationalism and Racism

• Post-1870s nationalism became more exclusionary and populist, driven by pseudo-scientific racial theories.

• Pride in national racial characteristics fostered animosity towards others.

• Count Arthur de Gobineau's theories categorized races and promoted the 'Aryan race.'

• Nationalist movements justified imperialism and targeted minorities within multi-ethnic states.

Jewish Emancipation and Anti-Semitism

• 1870s: Jews in Western/Central Europe gained legal equality but still faced discrimination.

• Economic improvement allowed upward mobility, yet anti-Semitic sentiments surged after the 1873 stock market crash.

• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion fueled anti-Jewish sentiment, especially among conservatives and lower middle classes.

• Vicious pogroms in Russia exemplified the brutality of rising anti-Semitism amid economic woes.

Evolution of Revolutionary Marxism

• Post-1871 rise of socialist parties was marked by the establishment of significant organizations like the SPD and Russian Social Democratic Party.

• By 1912, SPD became the largest party in Germany, representing working-class interests through legal reforms and parliamentary politics.

Shift Towards Moderate Socialism

• Key turning point: Resistance to radical Marxism and focus on practical labor reforms.

• German unions grew rapidly after 1890; collective bargaining became a priority over revolution.

• Each country's socialist movement exhibited unique characteristics based on local context, leading to different approaches towards social change.