4.1 Introduction to Learning

Key Types of Learning

• Associative Learning: Connecting items/experiences together based on the order in which they occur.

• Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.

• Latent Learning: Delayed learning; information is exposed but not displayed until needed.

• Social Learning: Learning through social interaction (e.g., body language imitation).

• Insight Learning: Mentally working through details to solve a problem.

• Trial and Error Learning: Trying multiple solutions at random until one is successful.

• Superstitious Behavior: Learning through accidental reinforcement.

Important Figures and Contributions

• John Garcia:

  • Taste Aversion: Negative association with food due to past illness or pain.

• Albert Bandura:

  • Observational Learning: Bobo doll experiment (children imitate aggression).

• Edward Tolman:

  • Latent Learning: Rats in mazes performed better if previously exposed.

• Edward Thorndike:

  • Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

  • Trial and Error Learning: Cats in puzzle boxes.

• Ivan Pavlov:

  • Classical Conditioning: Dogs salivating in response to a bell.

• B.F. Skinner:

  • Operant Conditioning: Behavior more likely with reinforcement, less likely with punishment.

• Robert Rescorla:

  • Cognitive Learning: Animals can be taught to expect certain outcomes.

• John B. Watson:

  • Behaviorism: Behaviors are the result of learning.

4.2 Classical Conditioning

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that elicits no response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): NS paired with US, eventually triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.

Pavlov's Experiment

1. Before Conditioning:

   • US: Food → UR: Salivation

   • NS: Bell → No response

2. During Conditioning:

   • NS (Bell) + US (Food) → UR (Salivation)

3. After Conditioning:

   • CS (Bell) → CR (Salivation)

Key Processes

• Acquisition: Associating NS with US to elicit a conditioned response.

• Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response when US is no longer paired with CS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause.

• Stimulus Generalization: CR occurs to stimuli similar to the CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.

• Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order): New NS becomes the new CS without US present.

4.3 Operant Conditioning

Key Concepts

• Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike): Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur.

B.F. Skinner's Experiment

• Skinner Box (Operant Chamber): Lever press by rat resulted in a food reward.

Positive vs. Negative

• Positive: Adding a stimulus.

• Negative: Removing a stimulus.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Example: Giving $50 for an 'A' grade.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Example: Taking away chores for good grades.

• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

  • Example: Adding chores for bad grades.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

  • Example: Taking away phone for bad grades.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

  • Example: Free meal after five visits.

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

  • Example: Employee of the Month.

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses.

  • Example: Slot machines.

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after a random amount of time.

  • Example: Secret shoppers.

Overjustification Effect

• Definition: Extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation, reducing enjoyment.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic Motivation: Motivated by external rewards or to avoid punishment.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Motivated by internal satisfaction.

4.4 Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning

Factors Influencing Learning

• Biological Factors:

  • Genetic predisposition, adaptive responses, neural mirroring.

• Psychological Factors:

  • Previous experiences, generalizations, expectations, associations.

• Social and Cultural Influences:

  • Culture, family, friends, peer groups, motivation.

Preparedness and Instinctive Drift

• Preparedness: Biological predisposition to learn associations aiding survival.

• Instinctive Drift: Reverting to biological patterns even after learning.

Key Experiments

• Rescorla-Wagner Model:

  • Conditioning occurred in the first group but not the second due to expectations.

• Edward Tolman:

  • Cognitive Map: Mental layout of the environment.

  • Latent Learning: Learning not noticeable until there’s a reason to demonstrate it.

Learning Types

• Social Learning: Learning through social interaction, observing, and imitating others.

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others receive reinforcements or punishments.

Locus of Control

• External Locus of Control: Outside factors determine fate/outcomes.

• Internal Locus of Control: Individual control over their own fate.

Coping Strategies

• Problem-Focused Coping: Directly changing the stressor or interaction with it.

• Emotion-Focused Coping: Avoiding/ignoring the stressor and focusing on emotional needs.