T3+Vocabulary+Test+Review+(2).docx

(158 terms)

Great American Desert

• the arid region in the central United States, primarily the High Plains. It is characterized by low precipitation levels and sparse vegetation, making it unsuitable for traditional agriculture.

Silver Rush

• to a period of rapid mining activity for silver ore, often leading to a sudden influx of miners and settlers to the region in search of wealth.

Stephen Austin

• an American impresario known as the "Father of Texas" for his role in the colonization of the region by bringing in American settlers.

Santa Anna

• Antonio López de Santa Anna was a Mexican general and politician who dominated Mexican politics in the 19th century. He served as President of Mexico multiple times and played a significant role in the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War.

Sam Houston

• A prominent figure in Texas history, Sam Houston was a politician and military leader who played a key role in the Texas Revolution and later served as the first president of the Republic of Texas. He also served as the governor of Texas and a U.S. senator.

Alamo

• The Alamo was a mission and fortress compound in San Antonio, Texas, known for the famous Battle of the Alamo in 1836 during the Texas Revolution. It is a symbol of courage and sacrifice in American history.

Aroostook War

• The Aroostook War was a nonviolent boundary dispute between the United States and Britain over the Maine-Canada border in 1838-1839.

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

• Signed in 1842, it settled border disputes between the US and Britain, particularly regarding Maine and the Great Lakes region. It also addressed issues like the slave trade and naval armaments.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848, ending the Mexican-American War. It ceded a vast territory from Mexico to the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Nevada, and Utah.

Commodore Matthew C. Perry

• Commodore Matthew C. Perry was a U.S. naval officer who played a key role in opening Japan to the West through the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.

John Tyler

• John Tyler was the 10th President of the United States, serving from 1841 to 1845. He was known for being the first Vice President to succeed to the presidency after the death of a sitting President.

54 Forty or Fight

• a slogan used in the 1844 US presidential election, referring to the northern boundary of the Oregon Territory at the latitude 54°40′N. It reflected American expansionist sentiments towards British-controlled Oregon.

James K. Polk

• James K. Polk was the 11th President of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849. He was known for his territorial expansion policies, including the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Territory. Polk also led the nation during the Mexican-American War, which resulted in significant territorial gains for the U.S.

Wilmot Proviso

• The Wilmot Proviso was a proposed piece of legislation in the United States in 1846, which aimed to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican-American War.

Franklin Pierce

• was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. He is often remembered for his support of the controversial Kansas-Nebraska Act, which heightened tensions between the North and the South over the issue of slavery. Pierce's presidency was also marked by the Gadsden Purchase, which added a significant amount of territory to the United States.

Mexican-American War

• was a conflict fought between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. It stemmed from the annexation of Texas by the U.S. and the territorial disputes between the two countries.

Zachary Taylor

• was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. He was a career military officer and served as a major general in the United States Army.

"Bear Flag Republic"

• refers to the short-lived California Republic, which was declared by American settlers in California in 1846. The republic was established as a result of the Bear Flag Revolt against Mexican rule, and it lasted for only a few weeks before California was occupied by the United States during the Mexican-American War.

Mexican Cession

• refers to the land that Mexico ceded to the United States following the Mexican-American War in 1848. This territory included present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

The Gadsden Purchase

• refers to a treaty signed between the United States and Mexico in 1853, in which the US acquired a significant portion of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico for $10 million. This acquisition was aimed at facilitating the construction of a transcontinental railroad.

The Kanagawa Treaty

• was signed on March 31, 1854, between the United States and Japan. It effectively ended Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion, allowing American ships to enter Japanese ports and establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries.

The Free Soil Movement

• was a political movement in the United States during the 1840s and 1850s. It opposed the expansion of slavery into the Western territories, emphasizing the importance of "free soil," where slavery would be prohibited. The movement attracted individuals from various political backgrounds who were united in their opposition to the spread of slavery.

The Conscience Whigs

• were a faction of the Whig party in the United States that opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories. They were driven by moral and ethical concerns about the institution of slavery, and they played a significant role in the political landscape leading up to the American Civil War.

Hunker Democrats

• were a faction of the Democratic Party in the mid-19th century New York state that supported the conservative wing of the party. They were known for their pro-business and pro-slavery stance, and their opposition to the anti-slavery "Barnburner" faction within the party.

"Barnburners"

• refers to a faction of the Democratic Party in the mid-19th century. They were named after the traditional practice of burning down a barn to get rid of rats, signifying their desire to "cleanse" the party of corrupt elements. Bleeding Kansas

Lecompton Constitution

• a pro-slavery document proposed for the state of Kansas in 1858. It was rejected by Kansas voters and never went into effect. Its rejection further fueled tensions leading up to the U.S. Civil War. Kansas was eventually admitted as a free state in 1861.

Lewis Cass and Popular Sovereignty

• a 19th-century American statesman and Democratic politician who championed the concept of Popular Sovereignty. This principle asserted that the residents of a territory should have the right to determine whether slavery would be allowed within their borders through a popular vote. Cass believed that Popular Sovereignty would serve as a compromise solution to the contentious issue of slavery and help maintain the unity of the United States. However, this concept ultimately failed to effectively resolve the slavery debate, leading to increased tensions and eventually contributing to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Compromise of 1850

• a legislative package that aimed to resolve the territorial and slavery issues between the Northern and Southern states in the United States. It consisted of several provisions, including the admission of California as a free state, the implementation of popular sovereignty in the territories, and the strengthening of the Fugitive Slave Act. The Compromise of 1850 temporarily eased tensions but ultimately failed to prevent the onset of the Civil War.

Stephen A. Douglas

• a prominent American politician and U.S. senator during the mid-19th century. He was a key figure in the Democratic Party and played a significant role in shaping the nation's political landscape. Douglas is best known for his advocacy of popular sovereignty and his involvement in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, which helped define the issue of slavery in the United States.

Millard Fillmore

• the 13th President of the United States, serving from 1850 to 1853. He ascended to the presidency after the death of President Zachary Taylor. Fillmore was known for his support of the Compromise of 1850, which aimed to address the contentious issue of slavery. He also played a role in opening up trade with Japan through the Treaty of Kanagawa. Fillmore's presidency was marked by political divisions and the continued debate over slavery, and he was not successful in securing re-election.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

• a significant piece of legislation passed by the U.S. Congress on May 30, 1854. It repealed the Missouri Compromise and allowed the residents of the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide whether to permit slavery within their borders through popular sovereignty. The act sparked intense debate and violence between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers in Kansas, exacerbating sectional tensions and contributing to the lead-up to the Civil War.

Crittenden Compromise

• a series of constitutional amendments proposed in Congress in 1860 as an attempt to find a compromise between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions. It aimed to address the growing tensions over slavery by permitting slavery in territories south of latitude 36°30'N but not north of it. The proposal also included measures to protect slavery in the District of Columbia and compensate owners for runaway slaves. Despite its efforts, the Crittenden Compromise failed to gain sufficient support and was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the outbreak of the Civil War

Know-Nothing Party

• the American Party, was a nativist political movement in the United States during the mid-19th century. It emerged in response to fears of increasing immigration, particularly from Ireland and Germany, and aimed to restrict immigration and limit the political influence of Catholics and foreign-born Americans. The party gained some success in the 1850s but eventually dissolved due to divisions over the issue of slavery

James Buchanan

• the 15th President of the United States, serving from 1857 to 1861. He was a member of the Democratic Party and is often considered one of the least effective presidents in American history. Buchanan's presidency was marked by growing sectional tensions over slavery, and his attempts to find a compromise and maintain the Union were unsuccessful. His presidency was followed by the outbreak of the Civil War. Buchanan's political career also included serving as Secretary of State under President James K. Polk and representing Pennsylvania in the House of Representatives and the Senate

Fugitive Slave Law

• a series of laws passed by the U.S. Congress in 1793 and 1850 (repealed in 1864) that allowed for the capture and return of escaped slaves who fled from one state to another or into federal territories. The 1793 law authorized federal and state judges to decide the status of alleged fugitive slaves without a jury trial. The 1850 law imposed stricter measures, denying fugitives the right to testify on their own behalf and eliminating the right to a trial by jury. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 also imposed penalties on those who aided or harbored escaped slaves

Dred Scott v. Sanford

• a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1857. The case involved Dred Scott, an enslaved African American who sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, were not considered citizens and therefore could not bring lawsuits in federal courts. The decision also declared that Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in the territories, effectively invalidating the Missouri Compromise. The ruling further deepened the divide between the North and South over the issue of slavery and contributed to the tensions that led to the Civil War

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

• a series of seven debates held in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas during the campaign for one of Illinois' United States Senate seats. The debates focused on the issue of slavery extension into the territories and propelled Lincoln into national prominence, ultimately leading to his election as President of the United States. Each debate lasted several hours, with one candidate speaking for 60 minutes, followed by a 90-minute response, and a final 30-minute rebuttal by the first candidate

Sumner-Brooks Incident

• a violent altercation that took place in the United States Senate chamber on May 22, 1856. It involved Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts and Representative Preston Brooks of South Carolina. Brooks, a relative of Senator Andrew Butler, attacked Sumner with a metal-tipped cane in response to a speech in which Sumner criticized slavery and pro-slavery senators. The incident highlighted the growing tensions between the North and South over the issue of slavery and further deepened the divide between the two regions

John Brown and Harpers Ferry

• abolitionist who led a raid on the U.S. military arsenal at Harpers Ferry in October 1859. The raid was part of Brown's plan to establish an independent stronghold for freed slaves in Maryland and Virginia. Brown and his band overran the arsenal but were eventually captured. He was convicted of treason, hanged, and became a martyr for the abolitionist cause. The raid heightened tensions between the North and South, contributing to the mounting tensions that led to the American Civil War

Uncle Tom’s Cabin

• an abolitionist novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in 1852. The novel gained widespread popularity, particularly among white Northern readers, for its vivid portrayal of the experiences of enslaved individuals. It tells the story of Uncle Tom, an enslaved person depicted as noble and steadfast in his beliefs. The novel also features other characters and explores the themes of slavery, morality, and the impact of slavery on families. Uncle Tom's Cabin played a significant role in shaping public opinion about slavery and is considered a catalyst for the abolitionist movement in the United States

Sociology of the South

• the study of social structures, relationships, and dynamics specific to the Southern region of the United States. It encompasses the examination of social issues, cultural practices, historical contexts, and economic factors that shape Southern society. The Sociology of the South can explore topics such as race relations, class divisions, religion, politics, and the impact of historical events on social structures. It provides insights into the unique characteristics and complexities of the Southern region within the broader field of sociology

Border States

• slave states that remained loyal to the Union and did not secede. These states included Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. West Virginia, which separated from Virginia during the war, is also considered a border state. The border states were unique because they bordered both free states of the Union and slave states of the Confederacy. Their loyalty to the Union presented political challenges for President Abraham Lincoln as he navigated the complexities of the war and the issue of slaver

Confederate States of America

• government established by 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union in 1860-1861, leading to the American Civil War. Prompted by the election of President Abraham Lincoln, the Confederacy aimed to protect the institution of slavery and limit the authority of the central government. Jefferson Davis was elected as the Confederate president, and the Confederate Constitution was modeled after the United States Constitution with some differences, particularly regarding slavery and states' rights. The Confederacy ultimately faced defeat in the spring of 1865, marking the end of its existence as a separate government

Jefferson Davis

• political leader and statesman who played a significant role in the American Civil War. He served as the president of the Confederate States of America throughout its existence. Davis was a powerful cabinet officer in the 1850s and left the Senate to join the government of the Confederacy when his home state of Mississippi seceded from the Union. He was captured after the war and later became a symbol of the Confederacy. Davis had a political career that included serving in the U.S. House of Representatives, Senate, and a major cabinet position. His presidency was marked by both praise and criticism, and his moderate positions made him a chosen leader for the Confederacy

Second American Revolution

• Reconstruction period after the Civil War. During this time, Americans faced off against other Americans and Confederate slave owners. The Second Revolution introduced new arguments over Voting rights, Citizenship, Federal power, and The potential for a multiracial republic.

Morrill Land Grant Act

• a U.S. federal law that provided grants of land to states for the establishment of colleges specializing in agriculture and the mechanic arts. Sponsored by Vermont Congressman Justin Smith Morrill, the act granted each state 30,000 acres of land for each of its congressional seats. The funds generated from the sale of the land were used to establish new schools or support existing state or private colleges in creating schools focused on agriculture and mechanic arts. The Morrill Land Grant Act played a significant role in expanding access to practical education and laid the foundation for the establishment of land-grant colleges and universities across the United States

Homestead Act

• Signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, it aimed to encourage westward migration and settlement by providing 160 acres of public land to individuals or families who met certain requirements. To claim the land, homesteaders had to be the head of a household or at least 21 years old, pay a small filing fee, and commit to living on and improving the land for five years. After fulfilling these requirements, they could receive ownership of the land. The Homestead Act led to the distribution of millions of acres of public land and played a crucial role in the development of the American West

Fort Sumter

• a historic fort located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, United States. It gained significance as the site of the opening battle of the American Civil War. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces under the command of General P.G.T. Beauregard bombarded the fort, which was occupied by Union forces led by Major Robert Anderson. The battle resulted in the surrender of Fort Sumter to the Confederacy after a two-day bombardment. This event marked the beginning of the Civil War, a conflict that redefined American freedom and lasted for four years

Bull Run/Manassas

• First Battle of Manassas, was the first major land battle of the American Civil War. It took place on July 21, 1861, near Manassas, Virginia. Union and Confederate armies clashed along a small river called Bull Run. After initially fighting on the defensive, the Confederates rallied and broke the Union right flank, leading to a chaotic retreat of Union forces towards Washington, D.C. The Confederate victory at Bull Run shocked many in the North and signaled that the war would be long and challenging. It gave the South a surge of confidence and highlighted the need for better preparation and strategy for both sides

Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan

• strategic proposal put forward by General Winfield Scott at the beginning of the American Civil War. The plan aimed to defeat the Confederate States of America (CSA) through economic measures rather than a purely land-based military campaign. Scott's plan emphasized a naval blockade of Southern ports to restrict imports and exports, effectively strangling the Confederacy's economy. The goal was to weaken the South and force its submission without excessive bloodshed. While the Anaconda Plan faced criticism for being slow and passive, elements of the plan, such as the naval blockade and control of the Mississippi River, eventually played a crucial role in the Union's victory in the Civil War

Robert E. Lee

• (1807-1870) was a prominent Confederate general during the American Civil War. He led the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and played a significant role in many of the war's major battles, including the Battle of Gettysburg. Lee is often admired for his military skills, strategic thinking, and gentlemanly demeanor. However, his legacy remains controversial due to his association with the Confederacy and the defense of slavery. Despite his military prowess, Lee's decision to fight against the United States has led to differing opinions about his place in American history

Antietam

• battle fought during the American Civil War. It took place on September 17, 1862, near Sharpsburg, Maryland. The battle was fought between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, led by General Robert E. Lee, and the Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by General George McClellan. Antietam is known as the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with heavy casualties on both sides. The battle ended in a tactical draw but was considered a strategic Union victory as it halted Lee's advance into the North and provided a boost to the Union's cause. Antietam played a pivotal role in shaping the course of the Civil War

Ulysses S. Grant

• (1822-1885) was the 18th President of the United States and a prominent figure during the American Civil War. He served as the commanding general of the Union Army and played a crucial role in leading the North to victory over the Confederacy. Grant's military strategies, including his relentless pursuit of Confederate forces and his willingness to engage in total war, contributed significantly to the Union's success. After the war, Grant served as President from 1869 to 1877, working to implement Reconstruction policies and promote civil rights. Grant's presidency was marked by both accomplishments and controversies, including efforts to combat corruption. He is also known for his memoirs, "Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant," which are considered one of the greatest works of American literature.

Gettysburg

• July 1 to July 3, 1863, in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle was fought between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, led by General Robert E. Lee, and the Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by General George G. Meade. Gettysburg is considered a turning point in the war and is known as the bloodiest battle with over 50,000 estimated casualties. The Union emerged victorious, halting Lee's invasion of the North and boosting Union morale. The battle also paved the way for President Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg Address, which emphasized the importance of preserving the Union and the ideals of freedom and equality

Appomattox Court House

• April 9, 1865. It led to the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, effectively ending the American Civil War. The battle lasted only a few hours and marked a significant turning point in the conflict. The Appomattox Court House, along with its buildings, including the McLean House where the formal surrender took place, has been restored and is now part of the Appomattox Court House National Historical Park

Emancipation Proclamation

• presidential proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War. It declared that all enslaved people in Confederate territory were to be set free. However, it did not immediately free any slaves, as it only applied to areas under Confederate control. The Emancipation Proclamation was a significant step towards the abolition of slavery and transformed the war into a fight for freedom. It also allowed African Americans to join the Union Army and Navy, contributing to the eventual liberation of nearly 200,000 black soldiers and sailors.

Reconstruction Acts

• a series of U.S. legislation enacted between 1867 and 1868 that outlined the conditions for the readmission of Southern states to the Union after the American Civil War. These acts were primarily written by the Radical Republicans in Congress and aimed to ensure the enfranchisement and equal rights of freed African Americans. The Reconstruction Acts divided the South into military districts and required the states to draft new constitutions that guaranteed civil rights for all citizens. The acts played a crucial role in reshaping the political landscape of the post-war South and advancing the cause of civil rights

54^th Massachusetts Regiment

• first African American regiments to serve in the Union Army during the American Civil War. It was formed in response to President Abraham Lincoln's call for the raising of Black regiments after the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. The regiment consisted of Black men from various locations who traveled to Boston to join this historic unit. The 54th Massachusetts Regiment gained recognition for its heroic assault on Battery Wagner in South Carolina in July 1863. Their bravery inspired the enlistment of more than 180,000 Black soldiers and played a significant role in the Union's victory and the destruction of slavery throughout the country

Copperheads

• group of people in the northern states during the American Civil War who sympathized with the South. They opposed the Union's war efforts and sought a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy. The term "Copperheads" was originally used to refer to a venomous snake, but it became a derogatory term for those who opposed the Union cause. The Copperheads were criticized by Republicans and Unionists for their perceived disloyalty. While some historians argue that the Copperheads were traditionalists resisting modernization, others view them as a danger to the Union.

Laird Rams

• type of warship equipped with a ramming device used during naval warfare. They were primarily used in the mid-19th century. The term "Laird Rams" specifically refers to two ironclad warships, the CSS Florida and the CSS Alabama, built by John Laird Sons & Company in Birkenhead, England, for the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War. These ships were intended to be used for ramming enemy vessels. However, due to diplomatic pressure from the United States, the Laird Rams were ultimately not delivered to the Confederacy and were instead purchased by the British government.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

• federal law enacted during the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era. It aimed to guarantee African Americans equal access to public accommodations, such as inns, public transportation, theaters, and other places of public amusement. The act also prohibited racial discrimination in jury selection. However, parts of the law were later ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, which limited its effectiveness. Nonetheless, the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was an important step towards advancing civil and social equality for Black Americans during Reconstruction

Civil Rights Cases of 1883

• (“separate but equal”) series of legal cases consolidated into a single ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court. In this landmark decision, the Court declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. The ruling stated that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments did not empower Congress to safeguard Black people against discrimination by private individuals. This decision had significant implications as it legalized racial segregation and spurred the enactment of Jim Crow laws, which codified racial segregation in the United States until the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Jay Gould and Credit Mobilier

• Jay Gould was a prominent financier and railroad tycoon in the late 19th century. He became involved in the Credit Mobilier scandal, a fraudulent scheme that occurred between 1865 and 1869. The scandal revolved around the Credit Mobilier of America, a construction company associated with the Union Pacific Railroad, engaging in fraudulent practices such as overcharging the government and paying kickbacks to politicians. Gould, along with James Fisk, purchased the company in 1867 and used it to manipulate the stock market. The scandal exposed corruption within the railroad industry and tarnished the reputations of several politicians involved.

Jay Gould vs. Cornelius Vanderbilt

• influential figures in American business during the 19th century. Jay Gould was a financier and railroad tycoon known for his aggressive tactics in the stock market, while Cornelius Vanderbilt was a transportation magnate who built his wealth through investments in railroads. The two clashed in the "Erie War," a battle for control over the Erie Railroad, where Gould, along with his co-conspirators James Fisk and Daniel Drew, issued fraudulent shares to weaken Vanderbilt's position. Ultimately, Gould and Fisk gained control of the railroad, while Vanderbilt suffered financial losses. Their rivalry exemplified the cutthroat nature of business during the Gilded Age in the United States.

“Boss” Tweed

• American politician who played a significant role in New York City politics during the 19th century. He was the leader of Tammany Hall, the Democratic political machine that controlled the city's politics. Tweed and his associates, known as the "Tweed Ring," engaged in widespread corruption and embezzlement, estimated to have cost the city millions of dollars. He used his position to manipulate elections, extract money from city contracts, and exert control over various aspects of city governance. Tweed's corrupt practices were exposed by political cartoonist Thomas Nast and investigative journalism, leading to his downfall and imprisonment. His name became synonymous with political corruption and graft.

Thomas Nast ("Father of the American Cartoon")

• renowned 19th-century American political cartoonist known for his influential sketches that critiqued social and political issues, exposed corruption and shaped public opinion.

Panic of 1873

• financial crisis that triggered an economic depression in Europe and North America. It began with financial crises in Vienna and New York City, marking the end of a long-term expansion in the world economy. In the United States, the Panic of 1873 was known as the "Great Depression" until the events of 1929 and the early 1930s set a new standard. The panic was caused by factors such as overbuilding of railroads and factories, over-loaning by banks, and the bankruptcy of banks and businesses. It led to a period of economic downturn known as the "Long Depression" that lasted until 1877 or 1879 in some countries. The Panic of 1873 had a significant impact on the global economy and raised questions about monetary policy and long-term obligations

Rutherford B. Hayes

• (1822-1893) was the 19th President of the United States. He won a controversial election against Samuel Tilden and served a single term. Hayes is known for withdrawing troops from the Reconstruction states, which was seen as a betrayal by some African Americans in the South. He was committed to integrity and reform, overseeing the end of Reconstruction and initiating civil service reform. Hayes is also notable for his wife, Lucy Webb Hayes, who banned alcohol from the White House in support of the temperance movement

Compromise of 1877

• informal political deal in the United States that settled the disputed results of the 1876 presidential election. It marked the end of the Reconstruction era and had significant consequences for African Americans. As part of the compromise, Southern Democrats agreed to acknowledge Rutherford B. Hayes as president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. This effectively ended federal Reconstruction efforts and led to the implementation of Jim Crow laws, disenfranchisement, and racial segregation in the South

Lincoln’s 10% Plan

• Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, was a Reconstruction plan proposed by President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War. The plan, issued on December 8, 1863, aimed to facilitate the reunification of the United States by establishing a process for postwar reconstruction. Under the plan, Confederate states could be readmitted to the Union once 10% of their 1860 voters took an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledged to abide by emancipation. This plan served as a platform for subsequent post-war reconstruction efforts

Radical Republicans

• They were known for their strong advocacy of abolishing slavery, enfranchising black citizens, and holding the Southern states accountable for the war. The Radicals believed in granting civil rights to African Americans and punishing Confederate leaders for their roles in the war. While they had significant influence during the late 1860s, their power diminished in the early 1870s as opposition grew and Reconstruction was deemed successful by many political leaders. The Radical Republicans played a crucial role in shaping the post-war political landscape and advancing civil rights reforms

Wade-Davis Bill

• unsuccessful Reconstruction policy proposed by Radical Republicans in the U.S. Congress in 1864. Sponsored by Senators Benjamin F. Wade and Henry W. Davis, the bill aimed to set the terms for the readmission of seceded states into the Union before the end of the Civil War. It called for the appointment of provisional military governors in the seceded states and required a majority of white citizens to swear allegiance to the Union. The bill also mandated the abolition of slavery, repudiation of secession, and the disqualification of Confederate officials from voting or holding office. However, President Abraham Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill, favoring a more lenient approach to Reconstruction. The Wade-Davis Bill played a role in shaping the debate and subsequent policies of Reconstruction

Freedman’s Bureau

• Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, was established by Congress in 1865 during the Reconstruction era following the American Civil War. The bureau aimed to provide assistance to formerly enslaved individuals and impoverished whites in the Southern states and the District of Columbia. Its programs included providing food, housing, medical aid, establishing schools, offering legal assistance, and helping freedpeople establish schools, purchase land, locate family members, and legalize marriages. However, the bureau faced challenges such as a shortage of funds, personnel, and political opposition, which limited its effectiveness. The Freedmen's Bureau played a significant role in the post-war period but closed in 1872 due to funding limitations and racist attitudes, leaving many African Americans to face persistent racial discrimination on their own

Black Codes

• restrictive laws enacted in the former Confederate states after the American Civil War. These laws were designed to limit the freedom of African Americans and ensure their availability as a cheap labor force after slavery was abolished. The black codes imposed various restrictions on African Americans, such as requiring them to sign yearly labor contracts and subjecting them to arrest fines, and forced unpaid labor if they refused. The enforcement of black codes by all-white police and state militia forces contributed to the undermining of support for President Andrew Johnson and the Republican Party. The black codes played a significant role in shaping the post-war South and were eventually replaced by the Jim Crow laws, which perpetuated racial segregation and discrimination until the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964

Tenure of Office Act

• 1867 that aimed to restrict the power of the President of the United States to remove certain officeholders without the approval of the U.S. Senate. The law required Senate consent for the removal of civil officers appointed by the President with the Senate's advice and consent. The act was passed by Radical Republicans in Congress as part of their struggle to gain control of Reconstruction from President Andrew Johnson. However, the act was eventually repealed in 1887, strengthening the powers of the President

Carpetbaggers

• Northerners who migrated to the Southern states during the Reconstruction era after the American Civil War. They were often involved in Republican politics and sought personal gain from the social and political conditions of the region. The term "carpetbagger" was originally used as a derogatory term by white Southerners who saw them as opportunistic outsiders. Carpetbaggers played a role in the political and economic transformation of the South during Reconstruction

Scalawags

• white Southerners who supported the policies of Reconstruction after the American Civil War. They were often seen as traitors by Southern Democrats and were accused of being disloyal to traditional values and white supremacy. Scalawags played a significant role in the Reconstruction era, particularly in Southern politics, and were a diverse group that included former Unionists, former slaveholders, professionals, and small farmers

Hiram Revels

• American clergyman, educator, and politician who became the first African American to serve in the U.S. Senate. He was born on September 27, 1827, in Fayetteville, North Carolina, and died on January 16, 1901, in Aberdeen, Mississippi. Revels was a member of the Republican Party and served in the U.S. Senate from 1870 to 1871, representing Mississippi during the Reconstruction era. Before his political career, Revels was a preacher and educator in multiple states. He played a significant role in advocating for the rights and needs of African Americans during his time in Congress

Sharecropping

• system of agriculture that emerged in the American South during the Reconstruction era after the Civil War. Under this system, landowners provided the land, tools, and supplies to tenant farmers, who in turn contributed their labor. The tenants received a share of the harvest as payment, typically in the form of a portion of the crops or a combination of crops and cash. Sharecropping effectively replaced the plantation system and created a new form of bondage for many formerly enslaved individuals. It often trapped farmers in cycles of poverty and limited economic opportunity.

Force Acts

• federal laws passed by the United States Congress in 1870 and 1871. These acts were aimed at combating and suppressing the activities of the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups in the Southern states during the Reconstruction era. The Force Acts granted the federal government the power to enforce civil rights and protect the voting rights of African Americans. They authorized the use of military force, suspension of habeas corpus, and the prosecution of individuals who violated the civil rights of others. The Force Acts played a significant role in curbing violence and ensuring the rights of African Americans in the South during this period.

Amnesty Act of 1872

• federal law passed by the 42nd United States Congress. It reversed many of the penalties imposed on former Confederates by the Fourteenth Amendment. The act removed voting restrictions and office-holding disqualifications against most secessionists who rebelled in the American Civil War, except for certain high-ranking officials. The Amnesty Act of 1872 affected over 150,000 former Confederate troops and played a role in shaping the post-Civil War era in the United States

Cornelius Vanderbilt

• railroad magnate who lived from May 27, 1794, to January 4, 1877. Born into humble circumstances on Staten Island, New York, Vanderbilt started his career as a ferryman and gradually built his fortune in the transportation industry. He played a significant role in the development of steamships and railroads, amassing a personal fortune of over $100 million. Vanderbilt's business tactics and success made him a prominent figure during the Gilded Age. He also made significant contributions, such as founding Vanderbilt University in 1873 through a generous gift.

Transcontinental Railroad

• constructed between 1863 and 1869 by two railroad companies, the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific. The Central Pacific built from the west, starting in Sacramento, California, while the Union Pacific built from the east, starting in Omaha, Nebraska. The two lines met at Promontory, Utah, on May 10, 1869. The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad revolutionized travel and trade, providing a faster and more efficient means of transportation across the country. It played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States and had a profound impact on the nation's economy, immigration, and the environment

Jay Gould and Watering Stock

• refers to the issuance of artificially inflated or fraudulent shares of a company's stock. This practice involved manipulating the value of stocks by issuing more shares than the company's actual worth, thereby diluting the value of existing shares. Gould, along with his associates, such as James Fisk and Daniel Drew, engaged in stock watering schemes, including during the so-called Erie War, where they issued spurious shares of the Erie Railroad to defraud investors, including Cornelius Vanderbilt

Rebates

• type of discount offered by manufacturers or retailers to incentivize purchases. Unlike discounts, which are applied at the time of purchase, rebates are collected after payment. They often involve submitting proof of purchase and other required documentation to receive a partial refund. Rebates can be offered on various products and services, ranging from consumer goods to securities trading. They can provide immediate cash in hand or long-term savings, depending on the specific terms and conditions. Rebates are a popular sales strategy used to stimulate purchases and maintain price points while offering customers temporary discounts

Pools

• a combination of a number of individuals or entities who contribute money or resources for a common purpose, such as betting on the success of a horse in a race or a contest in a game. The concept of pooling resources has been used in various contexts throughout history, including in betting and wagering activities.

Andrew Carnegie

• notable American industrialist and philanthropist. He started his career in the railroad industry and went on to become a leader in the steel industry, founding the Carnegie Steel Company. Carnegie amassed great wealth and later dedicated himself to philanthropy, promoting causes such as education and libraries. His "The Gospel of Wealth" philosophy encouraged the wealthy to use their resources for the benefit of society. Carnegie's business success and philanthropic efforts left a lasting impact on American society, making him a significant figure in history.

Vertical Integration

• business strategy where a company controls multiple stages of its production process and supply chain, allowing it to have more control over its operations and reduce reliance on external entities. It involves the acquisition or ownership of different stages of production, from raw materials to the final product, within a single company. This strategy can lead to increased efficiency, cost savings, and greater control over quality and distribution. Examples of vertical integration include a company owning its suppliers or distributors.

J.D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil Company

• American industrialist and philanthropist who founded the Standard Oil Company. Rockefeller entered the oil business in the 1860s and quickly expanded his operations, acquiring refineries and eliminating competition through strategic acquisitions. By 1870, he established the Standard Oil Company of Ohio, which eventually became the largest oil company in the world. Rockefeller's business practices, including vertical integration and aggressive tactics, led to the creation of a monopoly in the oil industry. However, in 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of Standard Oil due to antitrust concerns. Rockefeller's wealth and philanthropic efforts left a lasting impact on American business and society.

Horizontal Integration

• business strategy where a company acquires or merges with another company operating in the same industry or a similar line of business. The goal of horizontal integration is to eliminate competition, expand market size, and create economies of scale. This strategy allows companies to increase their market share, gain access to a larger customer base, and potentially achieve a monopoly position in the market. Examples of horizontal integration include mergers between airlines, hotel chains, and media companies.

Interlocking Directorates

• refer to a business practice where a member of one company's board of directors also serves on the board of another company or within another company's management. While not illegal under antitrust legislation as long as the corporations involved do not compete with each other, interlocking directorates have raised concerns about the quality and independence of board decisions. The practice can potentially lead to collusion and outsized control over an industry. Recent trends in corporate governance have aimed to diminish the potential for undue influence through interlocking directorates, but opportunities for collusion still exist.

J.P. Morgan and the Panic of 1893

• financier and banker who played a significant role in resolving the Panic of 1893. The panic was a severe economic depression that resulted from a series of bank failures, stock market crashes, and business bankruptcies. As one of the most powerful bankers of his time, Morgan organized a group of financiers to provide financial support to struggling banks and businesses, helping stabilize the economy. His efforts, along with government intervention, contributed to the eventual recovery from the crisis. Morgan's actions during the Panic of 1893 solidified his reputation as a key figure in American finance.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act

• a federal law enacted on July 14, 1890. It aimed to address the concerns of farmers and miners by increasing the amount of silver the government was required to purchase every month. However, it did not authorize the free and unlimited coinage of silver as desired by Free Silver supporters. The act was passed in response to the growing complaints of farmers' and miners' interests, who sought to boost the economy and cause inflation to alleviate their financial difficulties. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act played a role in the broader compromise on the silver issue at the time

Bessemer Process

• industrial method for mass-producing steel from molten pig iron. It involved blowing air through the molten iron to remove impurities and achieve the desired properties of the steel. The process was named after its inventor, Sir Henry Bessemer, who patented it in 1856. The Bessemer Process revolutionized steel production, making it cost-effective and enabling the construction of large-scale projects such as railroad lines. However, it was eventually replaced by other steelmaking processes, such as the open-hearth process and the basic oxygen process, due to certain limitations and drawbacks.

Alexander Graham Bell

• Scottish-born scientist and inventor best known for inventing the first working telephone in 1876. He founded the Bell Telephone Company in 1877, which later became AT&T Corporation. Bell's contributions extended beyond the telephone, as he worked on various other inventions and made significant contributions to society. He also had a lifelong commitment to deaf education and played a role in the development of periodicals of the time. Bell's focus on oralism and teaching speech to the deaf, however, remains a subject of controversy within the deaf community.

Thomas Alva Edison and Menlo Park

• (1847-1931) was an American inventor and businessman known for his numerous inventions and contributions to technology. He established a research laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 1876. Menlo Park served as a hub for Edison's innovative work, where he and his team developed groundbreaking inventions such as the phonograph and the incandescent light bulb. The Menlo Park laboratory became known as the "invention factory" and played a crucial role in Edison's prolific career as an inventor.

Interstate Commerce Act

• 1887, was a United States federal law that aimed to regulate the railroad industry. It created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first federal regulatory agency, to oversee and address concerns related to railroad operations. The act was a response to public demand for regulation of the railroads, which were privately owned and largely unregulated at the time. The ICC was responsible for setting guidelines for railroad conduct, ensuring reasonable and just rates, and prohibiting discriminatory practices. The Interstate Commerce Act marked a significant shift in federal regulation of business and set a precedent for future regulatory agencies in the United States.

Interstate Commerce Commission

• regulatory agency in the United States established by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. Its primary purpose was to regulate railroads and later expanded to include other aspects of interstate commerce such as trucking, bus lines, and telephone companies. The ICC aimed to ensure fair rates, eliminate rate discrimination, and regulate common carriers. It was the first regulatory commission in the United States and played a significant role in shaping federal regulation of industries. The ICC was dissolved in 1995, and its remaining functions were transferred to the Surface Transportation Board

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

• 1890, was the first federal law in the United States to prohibit monopolistic business practices. It aimed to promote fair competition and prevent the formation of trusts that restricted trade. The act was named after Senator John Sherman of Ohio, who played a key role in its passage. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act paved the way for future antitrust legislation and marked a significant step in regulating business practices to ensure fair competition.

RR Strike of 1877 and the Knights of Labor

• significant labor uprising by railroad workers in the United States. It began in July 1877 and spread across multiple states, as workers protested against low wages and poor working conditions. The strike disrupted railroad operations, leading to violence and clashes with law enforcement. Although the strike achieved limited success, it highlighted the need for organized labor and paved the way for the growth of labor unions in the United States. The Knights of Labor, a prominent labor union at the time, played a crucial role in the strike and advocated for improved working conditions and the rights of all laborers.

Haymarket Bombing

• May 4, 1886, near Haymarket Square in Chicago. During a rally in support of striking workers advocating for an eight-hour workday, a bomb exploded after police arrived to disperse the crowd. The blast resulted in casualties among both police officers and protesters. The incident led to the arrest, trial, and conviction of eight individuals in connection with the bombing.

American Federation of Labor

• founded in 1886 as a federation of labor unions in the United States. It emerged as the successor to the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU) and the Knights of Labor. Samuel Gompers, a prominent labor leader, became the first president of the AFL. The AFL focused on organizing skilled workers and advocated for better working conditions, higher wages, and shorter work hours.

Samuel Gompers

• influential American labor leader and the first president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). He played a significant role in shaping the labor movement in the United States. Gompers advocated for the rights of organized skilled workers and fought for better working conditions, higher wages, and shorter work hours. His leadership and firmness on behalf of workers made him a prominent figure in the labor movement of his time.

Pullman Strike

• major labor conflict in the United States. It began when workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago went on strike to protest wage cuts and unfair working conditions. The strike quickly spread across the country, disrupting railroad operations and causing widespread economic turmoil. The federal government intervened, leading to clashes between strikers and law enforcement. The Pullman Strike highlighted the power of organized labor and the need for improved worker rights and protections.

Eugene Debs

• American labor leader, socialist, and five-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party. He gained fame for his involvement in the Pullman Strike of 1894, where he led one of the largest strikes in American history. Debs called for a boycott of trains using Pullman cars, resulting in chaos and his subsequent arrest. His experience with the strike and his six-month jail term led him to embrace socialism and focus on political activism. Debs played a significant role in advocating for the rights of workers and the rise of industrial unionism in the early 20th century.

Laissez-Faire

• economic theory that opposes government intervention in business affairs. It advocates for minimal governmental interference in the economy, with the government's role limited to protecting national borders, private property rights, personal freedom, and producing public goods that the market would not incentivize on its own

Social Darwinism

• a social theory that emerged in the late 19th century, combining Charles Darwin's theory of evolution with sociological ideas to justify imperialism, racism, and conservative economic and social policies. It suggests that certain individuals or groups become powerful in society because they are inherently superior, based on the concept of "survival of the fittest." However, it is important to note that Social Darwinism has been widely criticized and is considered a misapplication of Darwin's original ideas

Gospel of Wealth

• essay written by Andrew Carnegie in 1889. In it, Carnegie argues that the wealthy have a responsibility to use their wealth for the benefit of society. He promotes the idea of philanthropy and giving back to the community, stating that the true gospel concerning wealth is to bring peace on earth and goodwill among men

Horatio Alger Myth

• belief in the possibility of achieving success and upward social mobility through hard work, determination, and moral character, regardless of one's starting point in life. It is associated with the fictional stories written by Horatio Alger Jr., which portrayed characters who overcame adversity and achieved success. While Alger's stories were popular in the late 19th century, the myth has been criticized for oversimplifying the complexities of social and economic mobility

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

• restricted immigration into the United States. It imposed a 10-year ban on Chinese laborers immigrating to the country and defined laborers broadly, making it difficult for non-laborers to enter. The act was passed in response to pressure from unions and aimed to curb the influx of Chinese immigrants, particularly in California. It also declared Chinese immigrants ineligible for naturalization. The act was later extended and made permanent, but it was repealed in 1943 during World War II

Vaqueros

• skilled horsemen and cattle herders in Spanish colonial Mexico and the American Southwest. They played a vital role in the development of the ranching industry, using their horsemanship skills to manage and control livestock. Vaqueros were known for their distinctive clothing, which included wide-brimmed hats, durable trousers, and leather boots. Their expertise in handling cattle and horses greatly influenced cowboy culture in the United States.

Boom Towns

• communities that experience rapid population and economic growth due to the discovery of valuable resources such as gold, silver, or oil. They often emerge quickly and are characterized by new construction, a surge in business activity, and an influx of people seeking employment or opportunities for wealth. (California during Gold Rush)

Barbed Wire

• fence wire that consists of two twisted longitudinal wires with sharp barbs wound around them at regular intervals. It is used for fencing, security, and protection purposes. The invention of barbed wire revolutionized fencing and had a significant impact on agriculture, ranching, and territorial boundaries. It was patented by Joseph Glidden in 1874 and quickly became popular due to its affordability, durability, and effectiveness in containing livestock and marking property boundaries

Little Big Horn

• Custer's Last Stand, took place on June 25, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory. It was a conflict between federal troops led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and a combined force of Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors led by Sitting Bull. The battle resulted in the defeat and death of Custer and all the men under his command

Dawes Act

• “Act like you’re hungry for land” 1887 under President Grover Cleveland. It allowed the federal government to break up tribal lands and divide them into individual plots, aiming to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream US society. This resulted in the government stripping over 90 million acres of tribal land from Native Americans and selling it to non-native US citizens. Only Native Americans who accepted the division of tribal lands were allowed to become US citizens

Ghost Dance Movement

• religious and spiritual movement that gained popularity among Native Americans in 1890. Inspired by the Native American prophet Wovoka, the movement involved ritualistic dances and was seen as a way to bring about a return to traditional Native American ways of life. However, conflicting reports about the intentions and participation in the dances led to the US Army guarding reservations, resulting in violent clashes such as the Wounded Knee Massacre. Despite the decline in popularity among some Native Americans, the Ghost Dance continued underground and its message was spread by spiritual leaders like Wovoka and Kicking Bear

John Muir and the Sierra Club

• writer, and advocate for environmental conservation. He is known for his role as a founder of the Sierra Club, an influential environmental organization. Muir's writings and advocacy played a significant role in the preservation of wilderness areas, including Yosemite National Park. However, recent discussions have highlighted Muir's racist views and the white supremacist beliefs of some of the Sierra Club's original members. The Sierra Club has acknowledged Muir's harmful language and pledged to confront the racism associated with his legacy, while also recognizing his contributions to conservation efforts

New South

• emerged after the American Civil War as a vision for the economic growth and industrialization of the Southern United States. The antebellum South was primarily agrarian and relied heavily on cotton production. Prominent figures like Henry W. Grady popularized the concept of the New South, advocating for industrialization and economic diversification. The term represented a shift from the rural, impoverished South to a region embracing modernization and economic development

Tuskegee Institute

• founded in 1881 by Booker T. Washington. It started as a school for training teachers and evolved into a renowned institution for providing practical education and vocational training to African Americans. The institute played a significant role in various areas, including the establishment of the Tuskegee Veterans Administration Hospital, the Tuskegee Airmen flight training program, and the research conducted for the infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Today, Tuskegee University continues to be a historically black college and a symbol of African American education and empowerment

George Washington Carver

• prominent African American scientist and inventor known for his extensive research and inventions involving peanuts. Born into slavery in the 1860s, Carver overcame numerous challenges to become a respected figure in the field of agriculture. He developed over 300 products using peanuts, including dyes, plastics, and gasoline, making significant contributions to agricultural science and sustainability. Carver's work and achievements continue to inspire and impact various fields to this day

Plessy v. Ferguson

• 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. The case involved Homer Plessy, an African American man who challenged Louisiana's segregation laws by refusing to sit in a designated "colored" train car. The Court's ruling had far-reaching consequences, as it provided legal justification for racial segregation and the establishment of Jim Crow laws in the United States. It took nearly six decades for the Supreme Court to overturn the Plessy decision in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, declaring that segregated schools were inherently unequal

Ida B. Wells

• influential African American civil rights advocate, journalist, and feminist. Born into slavery in 1862 in Holly Springs, Mississippi, she became a prominent figure in the fight against racial injustice and lynching in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Wells used her platform as a journalist to expose the horrors of lynching and advocate for social and political change. She was a co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and dedicated her life to fighting for equality and justice for African Americans and women

Booker T. Washington

• prominent African American leader and educator in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He founded the Tuskegee Institute in 1881, which focused on providing vocational training and practical education to African Americans. Washington's philosophy emphasized self-help, economic advancement, and accommodation with white society. His most famous speech, known as the "Atlanta Compromise," called for cooperation between races and economic progress for African Americans. While Washington's approach drew both praise and criticism, he played a significant role in advancing the cause of African American education and empowerment

Grange Movement

• founded in 1867 with the aim of advancing agricultural methods and addressing the social and economic needs of farmers in the United States. It gained momentum in the mid-1870s due to the financial crisis of 1873, falling crop prices, and increased railroad fees. The movement sought to combat monopolistic practices by railroads and grain elevators that charged excessive rates for handling and transporting agricultural products. The Grange movement spread rapidly, with local units called Granges forming in many states and reaching a national membership of nearly 800,000 by the mid-1870s. It played a significant role in advocating for farmers' rights and inspiring political action against unfair practices

Munn v. Illinois

• 1876, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the power of state governments to regulate private industries that affect the public good. The case involved a Chicago grain warehouse firm, Munn and Scott, which was found guilty of violating an Illinois law that set maximum rates for the storage and transport of agricultural products. The Court's decision affirmed the state's authority to regulate private businesses in the interest of the public welfare

Ocala Platform

• The Ocala Platform refers to a set of demands made by the Southern Farmers' Alliance and other agrarian organizations at a convention held in Ocala, Florida in 1890. The demands included issues such as the free coinage of silver, federal income tax, direct election of senators, and regulation or ownership of railroads by the government. These demands later became influential in shaping the agenda of the Populist Party, which emerged as a political force in the 1890s

Turner’s Thesis

• According to Turner, the existence of a frontier in American history played a crucial role in shaping the nation's character and democratic institutions. He argued that the frontier experience fostered individualism, self-reliance, and a spirit of innovation among Americans. Turner's Thesis had a significant impact on the study of American history and influenced subsequent interpretations of the nation's development.

Statue of Liberty

• The Statue of Liberty, officially known as "Liberty Enlightening the World," is a symbol of freedom and democracy. It was a gift from the people of France to the United States and was dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue stands on Liberty Island in New York Harbor and is recognized as a universal symbol of liberty and hope. The statue was designed by French sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, with the internal construction by Gustave Eiffel.

Ellis Island

• Ellis Island, located at the mouth of the Hudson River between New York and New Jersey, served as an immigration station from 1892 to 1954. It was the first stop on American soil for approximately 12 million immigrants during that time. Today, Ellis Island is a historical site and houses the Ellis Island Museum of Immigration, where visitors can explore the history of immigration and trace their ancestors through millions of immigrant arrival records

Tenements

• Tenements were multi-story buildings that served as housing for working-class families in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These buildings were often overcrowded, lacked proper ventilation, and had poor living conditions. Many tenements were converted from single-family dwellings or repurposed buildings. Calls for reform led to the passage of the Tenement House Law in 1901, which aimed to improve living conditions and effectively outlawed the construction of new tenement

Tammany Hall

• Tammany Hall, also known as the Tammany Society, was the executive committee of the Democratic Party in New York City. It exercised political control through a combination of charity and patronage. The name "Tammany" was derived from an association that existed before the American Revolution and was named after Tammanend, a wise and benevolent chief of the Delaware people. Tammany Hall played a significant role in New York City politics from 1789 to around 1970, although its influence declined after the 1930s.

“City Beautiful” Movement

• urban-planning movement in the United States that emerged between the 1890s and the 1920s. It emphasized the integration of design and social issues, aiming to create aesthetically pleasing cities that would foster civic pride and engagement. The movement sought to improve urban living conditions and eliminate slums through the construction of monumental government buildings, open spaces, and grand plazas. However, critics argued that the movement focused too much on aesthetics and neglected social factors and the needs of communities

Jane Addams

• social reformer and peace activist. She is best known for her work in establishing Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago that provided social services and support to immigrants and the working class. Addams advocated for social justice, women's suffrage, and peace, and she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 for her efforts. Her work and ideas continue to inspire and influence social reform movements to this day

Social Gospel Movement vs. Social Darwinism NAWSA

• The Social Gospel Movement and Social Darwinism were two contrasting ideologies that emerged in the late 19th century. The Social Gospel Movement, rooted in religious beliefs, emphasized the importance of helping the less fortunate and working towards social justice. It sought to address social problems through acts of compassion and charity. In contrast, Social Darwinism relied on the concept of survival of the fittest and argued that success and wealth were determined by natural law. It opposed government interference and supported the idea that the poor were destined to remain poor. Meanwhile, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) played a crucial role in advocating for women's right to vote in the United States. Through strategic efforts, NAWSA eventually succeeded with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the long-awaited right to vote.

WCTU W.E.B. DuBois

• prominent African American writer, teacher, sociologist, and civil rights activist. He was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University and played a significant role in the founding of the NAACP. Du Bois advocated for racial equality, fought against racial discrimination, and used his platform to challenge the ideas of Booker T. Washington. His works, including "The Souls of Black Folk," continue to be influential in the study of African American history and sociology

Mark Twain

• an American writer and humorist who is best known for his novels "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn." Twain's works often satirized social conventions and explored themes of morality, race, and the American experience. He is considered one of the greatest American writers and his contributions to literature continue to be celebrated and studied today

Mary Cassatt

• American painter associated with the Impressionist movement. Born in Allegheny City (now part of Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania, Cassatt spent her early years in France and Germany. She studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and later pursued further artistic education in Paris. Cassatt's work often depicted women and children in everyday moments, and she became known for her expressive and insightful portrayals. She exhibited with the Impressionists and developed a close friendship with Edgar Degas. Cassatt's contributions to art challenged traditional beliefs and helped pave the way for women artists

Frank Lloyd Wright Barnum and Bailey

• Frank Lloyd Wright, a renowned American architect, is best known for his innovative designs and contributions to 20th-century architecture. He designed over 1,000 houses, commercial buildings, and other works, including the iconic Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City. Wright's architectural style, known as the Prairie style, emphasized blending structures with their natural surroundings and incorporating organic elements.

“Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion”

• phrase used during the 1884 U.S. presidential election as a derogatory remark against the Democratic Party. It was first uttered by Samuel D. Burchard, a Protestant minister, during a Republican rally. The phrase targeted the Democratic Party's association with Catholicism, accusing them of being influenced by alcohol and prone to rebellion. This remark caused a significant backlash and controversy, ultimately contributing to the defeat of the Democratic nominee, Grover Cleveland, in that election

“Waving the Bloody Shirt”

• political tactic used during the Reconstruction era in the United States. It involved invoking the memories of the Civil War and highlighting the sacrifices made by Union soldiers to gain support for political candidates or policies. By reminding voters of the bloody conflict and the Republican Party's role in preserving the Union, politicians aimed to rally support and maintain a hold on political power. This strategy was particularly employed by Republicans to appeal to Northern voters and maintain their dominance in the aftermath of the Civil War

Solid South

• political phenomenon where the southern states of the United States consistently supported the Democratic Party following the Civil War. This allegiance to the Democratic Party emerged as a reaction against the Republicans, who were associated with the North and the Reconstruction policies that followed the war.

Jeffersonian Tradition

• political philosophy and ideals associated with Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States. Jeffersonian Democracy emphasized agrarianism, limited government, individual liberties, and the belief in the power of the people as governors. Jefferson's vision encompassed the importance of agriculture, the promotion of local self-government, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

Stalwarts

• faction within the Republican Party in the United States during the late 19th century. Led by figures like Roscoe Conkling, the Stalwarts were known for their support of the spoils system and their opposition to the reform of the Civil Service. They also favored Ulysses S. Grant for a third presidential term in the 1880 election. Although they were unsuccessful in securing Grant's nomination, the assassination of James Garfield elevated Chester A. Arthur, a Stalwart, to the presidency. However, the term "Stalwarts" fell out of use after Conkling retired from politics in the 1880s

Half-breeds

• faction within the Republican Party during the late 19th century in the United States. The Half-breeds were a moderately liberal group that supported civil service reform and backed the lenient treatment of the South. James G. Blaine of Maine was a prominent leader of this faction. The term "Half-breeds" was coined by the Stalwarts, another faction within the Republican Party, to suggest that they were only half-Republican. The division between Stalwarts and Half-breeds played a role in the Republican convention of 1880, which ultimately resulted in the nomination of James A. Garfield as a compromise candidate.

Mugwumps

• 1884 presidential election. It referred to liberal Republicans who left the party to support Democrat Grover Cleveland instead of the Republican nominee James Blaine. The term was initially used as a derogatory label by party leaders, considering the Mugwumps as hypocritical turncoats and fence-sitters. However, many dissident Republicans proudly embraced the term, as it marked their opposition to political corruption and the spoils system. The Mugwumps played a role in Blaine's defeat and their defection was seen as a significant factor in swinging the election in favor of Cleveland. The term "Mugwump" later came to mean any independent voter or a politician who remained undecided or neutral on important issues

James Garfield

• (1831-1881) was the 20th President of the United States, serving from March to September 1881. He was the second U.S. president to be assassinated, with his term being the second shortest in U.S. history. Garfield was a Republican who supported civil rights and freedoms for African Americans. He was known for his quote, "I would rather be beaten in Right than succeed in Wrong"

Chester A. Arthur

• (1829-1886) was the 21st President of the United States, serving from 1881 to 1885. He assumed the presidency following the assassination of President James Garfield. Arthur was known for his efforts in civil service reform and his support for the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. He also advocated for modernizing the U.S. Navy and strengthening the country's infrastructure. Despite initial doubts about his ability to lead, Arthur's presidency was marked by stability and progress. He died in 1886, shortly after leaving office

Pendleton Act

• Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, was a landmark U.S. legislation enacted on January 16, 1883. It established a merit-based system for selecting government officials and supervising their work, replacing the previous spoils system based on political patronage. The act mandated that most positions within the federal government be awarded on the basis of merit rather than political affiliation. It also prohibited the firing or demotion of employees for political reasons and forbade requiring employees to provide political service or contributions. The Pendleton Act transformed the nature of public service and marked a significant step towards a non-corrupt government

Grover Cleveland

• (1837-1908) was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. He served as the only Democratic president during the period of Republican dominance from 1860 to 1913. Cleveland was known for his political reform efforts and was the first president to serve two non-consecutive terms. He focused on preventing Congress from granting privileges to special interests and prioritized making the federal government more efficient. Cleveland's presidency was marked by his commitment to merit-based appointments and his opposition to inflation and government intervention during the Panic of 1893.

McKinley Tariff

• Tariff Act of 1890, was a U.S. legislation framed by Representative William McKinley and became law on October 1, 1890. It raised the average duty on imports to almost 50% to protect domestic industries and workers from foreign competition. The tariff was a major topic of debate during the 1890 Congressional elections, which resulted in a Democratic landslide. The Democrats later replaced the McKinley Tariff with the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act in 1894, which lowered tariff rates

Panic of 1873

• financial crisis that triggered an economic depression in Europe and North America. It lasted from 1873 to 1877 or 1879 in France and Britain, and it was known as the "Long Depression" in Britain. In the United States, it was referred to as the "Great Depression" until the events of 1929 and the early 1930s set a new standard. The panic was sparked by the closure of the banking firm of Jay Cooke and Company, which was heavily invested in railroad construction. The Panic of 1873 marked the end of the long-term expansion in the world economy and had a significant impact on the United States and abroad

Bland-Allison Act

• enacted in 1878, renewed the coinage of silver dollars and mandated the purchase of silver bullion by the U.S. Treasury. It required the monthly purchase of silver bullion at market prices, ranging from $2 million to $4 million. The act was a compromise between those advocating for the free coinage of silver and those supporting the gold standard. While it reintroduced silver coinage, its impact was limited by government actions and broader economic forces

“Billion Dollar Congress”

• 51st United States Congress, which was in session from 1889 to 1891 during President Benjamin Harrison's tenure. It earned this nickname because it was the first Congress to pass a billion-dollar budget. One significant legislation passed during this time was the Dependent Pension Bill, which provided benefits to Union Civil War veterans

Benjamin Harrison

• 23rd President of the United States, serving from 1889 to 1893. He followed in the footsteps of his grandfather, William Henry Harrison, who was also a U.S. President. Benjamin Harrison was known for his support of protective tariffs and his pursuit of America's foreign policy goals. He signed the Sherman Antitrust Act into law and conducted a front-porch campaign during his election. Despite his accomplishments, he lost his bid for re-election in 1892 to Grover Cleveland and remained active in public life until he died in 1901

Coxey’s Army

• a group of unemployed individuals who marched to Washington, D.C. in 1894 during the Great Depression. Led by Jacob S. Coxey, the group aimed to persuade Congress to authorize a program of public roadbuilding to provide jobs for the unemployed. They arrived in Washington with about 500 men and their march was the only one of several groups to reach its destination

William Jennings Bryan and the “Cross of Gold” Speech

• July 9, 1896, at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. In his speech, Bryan passionately advocated for the free coinage of silver, which he believed would bring prosperity to the nation. He criticized the gold standard and concluded his speech with the memorable line, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." The speech helped propel Bryan to the Democratic Party's presidential nomination and is considered one of the greatest political speeches in American history

“Gold Bug” Democrats

• faction within the Democratic Party during the late 19th century who supported the gold standard as the basis of U.S. monetary policy. They opposed the free coinage of silver and favored a currency system based solely on gold. The Gold Bug Democrats formed their own party, called the National Democratic Party, and nominated their own presidential candidate, John M. Palmer, in the 1896 election. They criticized William Jennings Bryan and the regular Democrats for their support of free silver and were seen as more conservative on economic issues

Election of 1892

• November 8, 1892, and saw Democrat Grover Cleveland defeat Republican incumbent Benjamin Harrison. This victory made Cleveland the only person in U.S. history to be elected to a second, non-consecutive presidential term. Cleveland won the popular vote by a significant margin and secured 277 electoral votes, the most decisive win in a presidential contest in two decades. However, his victory was followed by an economic depression that posed challenges during his presidency