APUSH Period 1/2 Study Guide, 2025-26
Native relations with Europeans
Columbus: 1492 voyage funded by Spanish crown; established initial sustained contact between Europe and the Americas; opened pathways for large-scale Spanish exploration and colonial ambitions; set stage for profound demographic, ecological, and cultural exchanges and conflicts.
Conquistadors: Spanish soldiers/explorers (e.g., Cortés, Pizarro) who claimed vast territories in the Americas, built empire through military force, disease, and coercive labor systems; their actions disrupted Indigenous polities and enabled the extraction of wealth.
Cabeza de Vaca: early Spanish traverse across the Gulf Coast and Southwest after shipwreck; provided some of the first European observations of Native societies, trade networks, and geography; influenced later Spanish imperial strategies.
Martin Luther: key figure in the Protestant Reformation; his ideas helped drive religious diversity in Europe, which in turn influenced migration patterns and colonial religious motivations in the Atlantic world.
Pizarro: conqueror who toppled the Inca Empire; exemplified the imperial-driven approach of Spain in the Americas and intensified demand for precious metals, labor, and colonial administration.
Sepúlveda: debated the legitimacy and morality of Indigenous peoples’ subjugation under European rule; part of early justifications and critiques of conquest and the fate of native populations.
Columbian exchange: vast transatlantic transfer of crops, animals, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds; brought staple crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes) to the Old World and horses, wheat, sugar, and devastating diseases to the Americas; reshaped global populations, diets, and economies.
de las Casas (Bartolomé de las Casas): Dominican friar who criticized the abuses of encomienda and advocated for better treatment of Indigenous peoples; influenced reforms (e.g., New Laws of 1542) though reforms were contested and inconsistently enforced.
African diaspora: forced migration of Africans to the Americas; created enduring African-descended populations and laid the groundwork for racial slavery systems in the colonies.
European exploration: wave of maritime exploration by European powers that intensified competition for land, resources, and conversion opportunities; reshaped global maps and relations among Indigenous peoples, European empires, and African polities.
European slave trade: early, then systemic, forced transport of Africans to the Americas; foundational to the labor economy of many colonies and to the emergence of racialized slavery.
John White: colonial leader associated with the Roanoke expeditions; his return to the colony found the settlement abandoned (“Lost Colony”); highlighted the fragility and logistical challenges of early English colonization.
Encomienda and Repartimiento systems: Spanish labor systems exploiting Indigenous labor; defined legal/operational means to extract tribute and labor, often leading to severe abuses and demographic collapse among Indigenous populations.
Cortés (Hernán Cortés): led expedition that toppled the Aztec Empire; exemplifies Spanish military strategy and alliance-building with Indigenous groups opposed to centralized powers; catalyzed establishment of colonial rule and extraction.
Queen Elizabeth I: financed and supported early English exploration and privateering; encouraged colonial ventures and helped set the stage for later English settlements in the Americas.
Period 1 and 2 combined: Spanish vs English vs French settlements: contrasts in colonization strategies (conquest and resource extraction vs settlement and religious/more stable community-building), land-use approaches, labor systems, and interactions with Indigenous peoples.
Variations in colonial religion: religious practice varied by colonial region (Catholic influence in Spanish/Portuguese areas; Protestant denominations in English colonies; differing tolerances and religious establishments); religion shaped governance, community norms, education, and conflict with Indigenous and rival colonial powers.
Key concepts: exploration, colonization, and exchange
Columbian Exchange: see above; includes transfer of diseases (devastating to Indigenous populations) and crops that transformed global economies and diets.
Economic motives (gold, silver, cash crops) and religious motives (missionary work, puritanism) often intertwined with state power and private investment.
The encounter produced a spectrum of outcomes: cooperation, miscommunication, violence, cultural exchange, and legal frameworks governing labor and land.
Period 2: Rise of English and other European colonies; governance and society
Joint-stock company: investors pool capital to support colonization ventures; allowed the pooling of risk and resources and the eventual establishment of colonies funded by multiple shareholders.
Virginia Company: chartered joint-stock company that funded Jamestown; represents how economic motives underwrote early English colonization.
Jamestown: first permanent English settlement in North America (established 1607 in Virginia); underscored the challenges of viability, governance, disease, and relationship with Indigenous peoples.
Captain John Smith: leadership during the early years of Jamestown; emphasized discipline, trade with Indigenous groups, and survival strategies.
Pocahontas: Algonquian woman associated with diplomacy between settlers and Powhatan Confederacy; mythologized in later narratives; symbolized attempts at peaceful intergroup relations.
John Rolfe: introduced tobacco cultivation as a cash crop; economic turning point for Virginia and colony stability.
Powhatan: Indigenous leader and confederacy involved in initial interactions and conflicts with Jamestown settlers; central to early colonial-native relations and violence.
Tobacco: major cash crop in Virginia that sustained economic viability and attracted additional settlers; created a demand for labor and shaped land use and expansion.
Slave codes: legal frameworks that codified racial slavery; established lifelong, hereditary slavery and limited rights for Africans and their descendants; foundational to racialized labor systems in British North America.
House of Burgesses: first representative assembly in the English colonies (Virginia); early model of colonial self-government and local political participation.
Maryland Act of Toleration: 1649 act ensuring freedom of worship for Trinitarian Christians but penalizing atheists and Jews; later influenced debates on religious liberty and toleration.
Iroquois Confederacy: powerful alliance of Indigenous nations in the Northeast; interacted with European colonial powers through trade, warfare, and diplomacy.
Sir Francis Drake: English privateer; contributed to naval power and countered Spanish dominance on the seas.
Sir Walter Raleigh: sponsored exploration (e.g., Roanoke); emblematic of early English attempts at colonization and the risks involved.
Puritans: English religious reformers seeking to purify the Church of England; key drivers of migration to New England in pursuit of religious liberty and community-building.
Pilgrims / Separatists: early Puritan reformers who sought religious freedom through separatist communities in the New World; established Plymouth Colony.
Great English Migration: large scale movement of English settlers to the Americas in the 17th century; reshaped demographics and culture of English colonies.
Differences among Southern, Middle, and New England colonies: economic bases (tobacco, commerce, mixed economies), religious orientations (Anglican, Puritan, Congregational), geographical conditions (coastal plains, harbors, fertile lands), and labor systems (indentured servitude vs enslaved labor).
Roger Williams: founder of Rhode Island; advocated church-state separation and fair treatment of Indigenous peoples; established religious liberty and a more tolerant colony.
Rhode Island: colony founded on principles of religious freedom and separation of church and state.
Royal colonies: colonies governed directly by the Crown; reflective of centralized imperial control.
Proprietary colonies: colonies granted to individuals or groups with broad governing rights; governance was in the hands of proprietors rather than a corporate or crown-appointed authority.
Great Awakening: 18th-century religious revival movement emphasizing personal faith, questioning traditional authority, and democratizing religion; influenced colonial attitudes toward authority and equality.
Pequot War: armed conflict between the Puritan colonies and the Pequot Tribe (1636-1638); notable for militia tactics and colonial expansion.
King Philip's War: 1675-1676 conflict led by Metacom (King Philip) against English settlers; devastating for New England Indigenous populations and for colonial capacities.
Dominion of New England: administrative union of several New England colonies under royal governor (Sir Edmund Andros) aimed at consolidating control and enforcing Navigation Acts.
Sir Edmund Andros: colonial administrator who administered the Dominion of New England; his rule was marked by heavy-handed governance and resistance among colonists.
Quakers (Society of Friends): religious group advocating pacifism, equality, and direct personal revelation; faced persecution in several colonies but influenced values about religious liberty and governance.
William Penn: founder of Pennsylvania; established a proprietary colony with religious tolerance (especially for Quakers) and liberal governance.
Colonial slavery: growing system of enslaved labor in English colonies; evolving legal codes and social norms built around race-based slavery.
Pueblo Revolt: 1680 uprising by Pueblo peoples against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico; highlighted Indigenous resistance and resilience.
Mary Rowlandson: colonial woman captured during King Philip’s War; her captivity narrative provided a colonial perspective on Native–European conflicts.
John Calvin: theologian whose ideas about predestination and discipline influenced Puritan beliefs and governance in New England.
William Bradford: longtime governor of Plymouth Colony; author of the Mayflower Compact-era governance and community-building narrative.
John Winthrop: leader of the Puritan migration; established the Massachusetts Bay Colony with a vision of a model “city upon a hill.”
Massasoit: leader of the Wampanoag Confederacy who allied with the Plymouth settlers; diplomacy and intergroup relations shaped early colonial survival.
Metacom (King Philip): leader of the Wampanoag who led a pan-tribal alliance in King Philip’s War; a central figure in Indigenous resistance against English encroachment.
Henry Hudson: Englishman (working for Dutch interests) who explored the Hudson River; his voyages increased European interest in the region.
Anne Hutchinson: dissenter who challenged Puritan orthodoxy; helped shape debates about religious authority and gender roles in New England.
Indentured servants: system where settlers exchanged labor for passage to the colonies; a transitional labor model preceding broader enslaved labor.
Head-right system: grant of land to settlers or sponsors based on the number of people brought to the colony; encouraged immigration and land acquisition.
Bacon’s Rebellion: 1676 revolt in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley’s policies; highlighted tensions between frontier settlers and colonial authorities, and between colonial governance and colonial settlers.
Nathaniel Bacon and William Berkeley: Bacon led the rebellion; Berkeley was the colonial governor; conflict centered on frontier defense, Native policy, and taxation.
Middle passage: brutal transatlantic voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas; central to the Atlantic slave system and the expansion of colonial economies relying on enslaved labor.
Half-Way Covenant: mid-17th-century Puritan policy allowing partially church membership for the grandchildren of existing members; reflected changes in religious participation and community stewardship.
Salem Witch Trials: 1692 episodes of mass hysteria and legal proceedings accusing people of witchcraft; raised questions about governance, gender, and superstition in colonial society.
Jonathan Edwards: prominent preacher during the Great Awakening; famous for fiery sermons (e.g., “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”).
George Whitefield: itinerant preacher whose sermons helped spark the Great Awakening and fostered religious revival across colonies.
Stono Rebellion: 1739 slave rebellion in South Carolina; highlighted resistance to slavery and intensified the push for harsher slave codes and stricter control over enslaved peoples.
Triangle trade: transatlantic trading network linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas; included exchange of goods, enslaved people, and commodities like sugar and rum across the Atlantic.
Test format and study focus
Bold topics indicate potential short-answer questions (SAQs) on the exam; focus on these for concise, defensible explanations.
Exam format: approximately 45-50 multiple-choice questions (MC) and 1 SAQ.
MC questions are worth 1 point each; the SAQ is worth 15 points total, divided into parts a, b, and c, each worth 5 points.
The test will be on paper; a HANDWRITTEN 3”x5” notecard is allowed to be submitted with the test.
Resources to study include: (1) Summer homework videos, (2) Crash Course US History episodes #1-4, (3) American Pageant pages 2-116 (chapter 1-5) in print, (4) class notes, (5) AP Classroom activities, (6) other resources as noted.
Potential tricky vocabulary on distractors: challenges, causal, undermines, prohibition. The test assumes familiarity with college-level vocabulary and historical interpretation skills; questions may probe interpretation of primary sources and the framing of causes and effects.
Connections to broader themes and real-world relevance
The shift from exploration to settlement reflects evolving imperial strategies and the emergence of a colonial society with distinct regional identities (economic bases, religious cultures, and labor systems).
Labor systems evolved from Indigenous labor extraction (encomienda/repartimiento) to indentured servitude and, increasingly, enslaved African labor; these transitions laid the groundwork for long-term racialized systems in the Americas.
Governance evolves from company sponsorship and charters to royal and proprietary structures, and eventually to more participatory political norms in some colonies (e.g., House of Burgesses) and centralized authority in others (e.g., Dominion of New England).
Religious movements (Puritans, Separatists, Great Awakening) influenced social norms, education, governance, and attitudes toward authority, contributing to a tradition of questioning authority and seeking community-based governance.
Native-European interactions ranged from alliances and trade to genocidal conflict and displacement; these dynamics had lasting impacts on Indigenous sovereignty, culture, and demographic change.
The Atlantic world’s interconnected economies (triangle trade) linked regional economies and contributed to rapid wealth accumulation, social change, and the entrenchment of slavery as a labor system.
Exercises for exam prep (conceptual prompts you can rehearse)
Compare and contrast the motivations and outcomes of Spanish conquest (e.g., Cortés, Pizarro) with English colonization (e.g., Jamestown, Plymouth).
Explain how the Columbian Exchange reshaped demographics and economies on both sides of the Atlantic, including both positive and negative consequences.
Analyze the evolution of labor systems from Indigenous labor exploitation (encomienda/repartimiento) to indentured servitude and racialized slavery; discuss the social and legal changes that codified slavery in the colonies.
Discuss the significance of the House of Burgesses and the Dominion of New England as precursors to later American notions of governance and colonial autonomy.
Describe the ways the Great Awakening influenced political and social life in the colonies and contributed to the broader spirit of reform.
Explain how key events like Bacon’s Rebellion, King Philip’s War, and the Pueblo Revolt illustrate colonial-Native and intercolonial tensions and their long-term consequences.
Quick-reference glossary (selected terms and definitions)
Colubian Exchange: ext{exchange of crops, animals, diseases, and people across the Atlantic}
Encomienda: ext{Spanish labor system granting colonists authority over Indigenous labor in exchange for Christianizing them}
Repartimiento: ext{replacing encomienda; Indigenous labor system with rotational labor but continued coercion}
Joint-stock company: ext{funding mechanism for colonization via pooled investments}
Tobacco: ext{key cash crop driving Virginia’s economy and labor demands}
Slave codes: ext{legal frameworks defining enslaved status and restricting rights based on race}
Head-right system: ext{land grant program to attract settlers by giving land per person brought}
Half-Way Covenant: ext{mid-17th-century policy expanding church membership to grandchildren of church members}
Dominion of New England: ext{imperial consolidation of New England colonies under royal governance}
Atlantic triangle trade: ext{transatlantic network moving goods, enslaved people, and commodities}
Resources for further study (as listed in the transcript)
Summer homework videos
Crash Course US History episodes #1-4
American Pageant: pages 2-116 (chapter 1-5) in print version
Class notes
AP Classroom activities
Other assigned resources or references as indicated