Unit 7 Review: Global Conflict, 1900 to Present

Focus on global conflict including:

• Crumbling Empires

  • Ottoman Empire:

  • Known as the "sick man of Europe" pre-WWI, the Ottoman Empire struggled with modernization and nationalist movements.

  • Attempted reforms (Tanzimat) aimed to modernize the military and infrastructure but faced significant internal problems and opposition from conservative factions.

  • Reform movements included:

    • Young Ottomans: Advocated for liberal reforms and constitutional monarchy to limit the Sultan's autocratic power.

    • Young Turks: A revolutionary movement that successfully overthrew Sultan Abdulhamid II in 1908, promoting Turkish nationalism and further alienating various ethnic minorities in the empire.

  • Entered WWI on the losing side; post-war, the empire was partitioned and significantly weakened, leading to the establishment of modern Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

  • Russian Empire:

  • Experienced rapid industrialization under Tsar Nicholas II, which led to heightened dissatisfaction among the middle and working classes due to harsh labor conditions.

  • The 1905 Revolution was brutally suppressed, but it resulted in limited reforms including the October Manifesto, which granted a legislative assembly (Duma) and allowed for the formation of political parties.

  • The impacts of WWI catalyzed the Russian Revolution of 1917, resulting in the abdication of the Tsar, the establishment of a provisional government, and ultimately the Bolshevik Revolution, establishing the Soviet Union under Lenin's Marxist leadership.

  • Qing Dynasty (China):

  • Faced internal strife, notably the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), which resulted in millions of deaths and highlighted the weakening grip of the Qing government.

  • External pressures, including the Opium Wars, significantly undermined the Qing's authority and sovereignty, leading to disastrous treaties that opened China to foreign influence.

  • Revolutionary movements, including those led by Sun Yat-sen, culminated in the end of imperial rule in 1911 and the establishment of a provisional government.

  • Civil strife and competition for power ultimately facilitated the rise of communism under Mao Zedong.

  • Mexican Revolution (1910–1920):

  • A response to the dictatorial rule of Porfirio Díaz, this revolution was marked by social upheaval and significant peasant insurrection.

  • Key figures included Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who represented the agrarian and revolutionary movements against land inequality and government repression.

  • The revolution resulted in a new constitution in 1917 that introduced land reforms, labor rights, and universal male suffrage.

• World War I (1914-1918)

  • Causes (MAIN):

  • Militarism: Germany's extensive military buildup heightened tensions, leading neighboring nations to increase their own military capacities.

  • Alliances: The formation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) vs. the Triple Entente (Russia, France, Britain) created a precarious balance of power.

  • Imperialism: Competition for colonies and global dominance amplified national rivalries.

  • Nationalism: Intensified national pride and inter-ethnic struggles fueled conflicts, exemplified by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which triggered the war.

  • Characteristics and Impact:

  • Total War: Waged with the mobilization of entire populations, leading to widespread civilian involvement and casualties.

  • New Military Technology: Introduction of industrial weapons, trench warfare, and devastating high casualties, marking a significant change in warfare.

  • Propaganda: Employed to rally national support, justify wartime actions, and demonize the enemy through exaggerated portrayals of enemy atrocities.

  • The U.S. entry in 1917 significantly shifted the war's dynamics, leading to an armistice in 1918 and the imposing of punitive terms on Germany through the Treaty of Versailles.

• Interwar Period & Economic Crises

  • Following WWI, Europe faced severe economic troubles, resulting in dramatic government interventions:

  • Great Depression: Starting in the U.S. in 1929, it triggered global economic collapse, massive unemployment, and social unrest worldwide.

  • In the U.S., President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal initiated extensive government programs aimed at economic recovery, including public works and financial reforms.

  • In the Soviet Union, Stalin's Five-Year Plans focused on rapid industrialization and centralization, leading to the Holodomor, a catastrophic man-made famine that caused millions of deaths.

  • The mandate system of the League of Nations in the post-WWI era prolonged colonialism and imperialism, sparking anti-colonial sentiments across colonized nations.

• Prelude to World War II

  • Causes of WWII:

  • The harsh and unsustainable terms imposed by the Treaty of Versailles bred resentment and economic hardship in Germany and Italy.

  • Ongoing imperialistic ambitions, as nations pursued expansion opportunities at the expense of other nations’ sovereignty.

  • The economic fallout from the Great Depression led to extreme political shifts and the rise of totalitarian regimes.

  • Rise of Fascist Regimes:

    • In Italy, Benito Mussolini exploited nationalistic fervor to consolidate power and promote aggressive expansion.

    • In Germany, Adolf Hitler emphasized Aryan supremacy, remilitarization, and anti-Semitism, leading to a fervent rallying of nationalist sentiment.

  • The invasion of Poland by Hitler in 1939 prompted Britain and France to declare war, officially marking the beginning of WWII.

• World War II (1939-1945)

  • Characteristics:

  • Another total war that involved extensive mobilization of countries and new military strategies like Blitzkrieg (lightning war) tactics and firebombing campaigns.

  • The conflict was marked by significant propaganda efforts, government repressions, and widespread wartime atrocities.

  • Mass Atrocities:

  • Armenian Genocide (1915-1916): Orchestrated by Ottoman authorities, this tragic event led to the systematic extermination of 600,000 to 1.5 million Armenians.

  • Holocaust: Driven by Hitler's racial ideology, it resulted in the deaths of approximately 6 million Jews and millions of others executed in concentration and extermination camps, representing one of history’s most horrific genocides.

• Conclusion

  • The 20th century is marked by significant global conflict, economic crises, and the rise and fall of empires, all of which shaped the geopolitical dynamics that continue to influence contemporary international relations as we move into Unit 8.