Civil Rights and Social Movements

Freedom Summer
Organized by SNCC, NAACP, CORE, SCLC
In response to the 24th amendment (no poll tax)
Black and White college students traveled to Mississippi to register African American voters
Resulted in 3 deaths

Little Rock Nine
Was a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus used the National Guard to prevent their entry. President Eisenhower had to intervene to uphold judicial order.

Thurgood Marshall
Notable lawyer in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Became the 1st African American Supreme Court Justice.

Black Panthers
Founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale; prepared to use violence to protect African Americans against police brutality.

National Urban League
Founded in 1910 in NYC. Goal: increase job opportunities for African Americans. Pushed President Truman to desegregate the army and President LBJ to promote affirmative action.

Malcolm X
A militant civil rights leader. Wanted a separate Black society. Prepared to use violence. Follower of Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam. Critical of MLK. Left Nation of Islam and became mainstream Muslim. Became less radical. Assassinated by members of Nation of Islam.

Black Power
Stokely Carmichael's term. Black salute, Black revolution (violent for some), African American culture (e.g. Afro, clothing, Black studies, AA professors), removal of racist stereotypes/racist language, economic self-sufficiency.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
A group of young civil rights leaders that used civil disobedience along with MLK. Advocated non-violence. SNCC had been involved in the sit-ins, Freedom Rides, Freedom Summer, and the march from Selma to Montgomery. Black and White students were part of the SNCC. In 1967, under Stokely Carmichael, SNCC switched to violent tactics, more in-line with Malcolm X, kicking White students out of SNCC.

Civil Rights Act of 1964
Ended discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, ethnic origin, and sex (gender) in hotels, restaurants, trade unions, or anywhere that does business with the federal government or in another state. Equal Opportunity Commission created to oversee compliance. Cut off federal funds to segregated schools. Increased federal government power to register voters.

Affirmative Action
An action or policy favoring those who tend to suffer from discrimination, especially in relation to employment or education; regarded as positive discrimination.

De facto and De jure segregation
De facto: segregation that occurs by social practices. De jure: segregation enforced by law.

Camp David Accords
In 1978, President Carter invited Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Menachem Begin of Israel to discuss peace in Camp David, Maryland. They met for 13 days. Because of Carter's help, they signed the Camp David Accords in 1979. Egypt recognizes Israel as a country, and Israel returns Egypt's territory in Sinai, which it had taken over in the 1967 war.

Iran Hostage Crisis
Under President Carter. Hostages in the American embassy in Tehran, Iran, were held for a year with failed attempts to release them due to anger against the U.S. for giving medical attention to the Shah, the hated ex-leader of Iran.

Apartheid
In South Africa, a policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race.

Glasnost
Initiated by leader Mikhail Gorbachev; people in the USSR allowed to criticize their government.

The Reagan Doctrine
The USSR is an evil empire and we must not just contain communism. We must push it back and free people under it.

Ronald Reagan
Iran freed the hostages on the day of his inauguration. Gorbachev and Reagan both agreed to reduce armaments after Reagan's 1983 Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars). Remember Iran-Contra Affair.

American Indian Movement (AIM)
Created in 1968 by young Native Americans to protect their rights. Started as a self-defense group against police brutality; then used to rally public opinion for the Native American cause. AIM is sometimes violent. In 1972, AIM's leader Russell Means organized the "Trail of Broken Treaties", a march in Washington that turned violent. In 1973, AIM leads 200 Sioux to occupy Wounded Knee, South Dakota, taking hostages. The 71-day occupation ended by the FBI and federal marshals.

United Farm Workers
Union of migrant farm workers started by Cesar Chavez.