The Berlin Blockade, 1948-49

Events -

1. Final Meeting of Allied Control Council, March 1948

• British, French and America announced their plans for a unification of the Western Zones and the establishment of a West German government.

• an infuriated Soviet delegation walked out of the meeting and stared planning the creation of an East German State.

2. The Start of the Berlin Blockade, April 1948

1. Soviets prevented military supplies from entering West Berlin.

2. The Blockade officially started after this with water, road or rail transport through East Germany into West Berlin being refused.

Stalin justified these actions by saying that the Western powers violated the Yalta and Potsdam agreement due to the introduction of their new currency.

3. The Allies’ Response, July 1948

• on July 1st, the US and GB began a massive airlift of supplies that were dropped or delivered to the city.

• Operation Vittles supplied the city with an average of 13,000 tons of supplies a day and it lasted for 323 days.

• 2 new airstrips were built in West Berlin to withstand the number of flights coming into the city.

• 13,000 tons of coal was delivered on 15th April 1949

• In Jan 1949, planes landed every 3 minutes.

4. The End of the Blockade, May 1949

Stalin lifted the land blockade on 12th May 1949 at midnight when he finally came to terms with the fact that Operation Vittles could continue indefinitely.

The Berlin Blockade and its failure marked the consolidation of Europe into 2 blocs as Stalin now knew he did not have the power to unite Germany and grow communism towards the West.

Significance of the Blockade on the development of the Cold War

Division of Germany Spring/Summer 1949

West Germany = Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

East Germany = German Democratic Republic (GDR)

Formation of separate German States

FRG -

→ constitution approved in the spring of 1949

→ election for the new parliament, the Bundestag took place in August

→ Allies asserted dominance in FRG by forming the High Commission which gave them the final say on foreign policy, security questions and exports etc.

GDR -

→ March 1949, constitution of the future East German state was drafted by the SED (Socialist Unity Party) and approved by the People’s Council; single party state.

→ the People’s Congress was elected with voters given a pre-approved list of candidates who represented SED positions.

Formation of Treaties

NATO -

→ North Atlantic Treaty Organisation - a military alliance between Canada, US, UK, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Portugal and the Brussels’ Pact Members.

→ each treaty member will ‘take such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain security in the North Atlantic area.’

→ signed 4th of April and came into force August 1949.

The Brussels Pact -

→ Belgium, Britain, France, Luxemburg and the Netherlands

→ each signatory states would defend the other Pact members against any aggressor whatsoever.

→ Consultative Council would discuss issues of mutual concern.

Case Study: The Suez Crisis 1956

Causes of the crisis:

1. Nasser’s aims - social policies designed to modernise Egypt, increase education and land redistribution, strong anti-Israel stance and anti-colonialism, wanted to strengthen military and build a new dam.

2. Recognition of PRC - Nasser recognised PRC - a deliberate affront to the USA. USSR sent foreign minister to Egypt to broker financial and military agreements with Nasser.

3. Arms deal with Czechoslovakia - Arms agreement between Egypt and Czechoslovakia in 1955, proved too much to bear for USA.

4. Nationalisation of the Suez Canal - 26th of July 1956 Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal so he could used the revenue (from tolls on the canal) to fund the Aswan Dam. Soviets offered assistance to Nasser but he wanted to keep his options open. Nationalising canal undermined French and British influence.

Key Events:

1. GB, France and Israel decide to invade Egypt. Israel to invade through Sinai Peninsula and advance on canal. GB and France would then intervene in resulting conflict, sending 80,000 troops and their navies to protect the canal.

2. Attack launched on 29th October 1956 - GB and FR demanded withdrawal of both Israeli and Egyptian troops from the canal. Nasser refused so GB bombed Egypt’s airfields on 31st of October.

3. 5th of November - GB-FR troops arrived at the Canal. Eisenhower refused to support their actions - saw it as an attempt to prop up their empires.

4. USA condemned the action in the UN and used financial and diplomatic pressure on GB and FR to stop fighting on 6th November, including an embargo on supplying oil to the 3 countries, and a block on IMF loans to GB.

5. USSR threatened missile attacks on GB, FR and Israel if they did not halt attack on Egypt. Eisenhower warned Khrushchev against ‘reckless’ suggestions of nuclear war.

6. The UN was also dealing with the crisis in Hungary - but the Middle East was seen as more of a priority as so much oil was transported through the Suez Canal.

7. USA bypassed the Security Council, as GB and FR would use their veto power - instead an emergency meeting of General Assembly met and passed a resolution demanding withdrawal of all troops.

8. On the 4th of November, UN agreed to send emergency force to Egypt to stabilise the situation - used UN Blue Helmets. 7th of Nov GB and FR troops withdrew - took until March 1957 for Israeli troops to withdraw.

Significance of the Crisis:

1. KHRUSHCHEV - felt like his ultimatum to the aggressors was one of his crowning glories and that he was responsible for the retreat of GB and FR. Impressed by Nasser’s aims. Thankful that Rev. in Hungary fell into shadows and USSR was seen as more diplomatic on world stage.

2. ROLE of UN - template for sending in troops was initiated and established with the use of UN Blue Helmets. Role of superpowers affected UN decisions.

3. USA - the Suez Crisis was the last time the US tool action against Israel with them now being a loyal and consistent ally. Eisenhower Doctrine was created - provided assistance to Middle Eastern countries that were vulnerable to communism. USA made alliances with ruthless dictators who supported anti-communism.

4. GB and FR - the powers realised their influence had significantly weakened. Empires continued to shrink and diplomatic influence decreased in comparison to US and USSR. France aligned themselves closer to the continent e.g. Treaty of Rome.

5. NASSER - showed the world that countries were not reliant on developing with help from superpowers and could use their own positions in the Cold War to their advantage. Becomes leader of Non-Aligned movement for a time.

The Berlin Crisis 1958 - 61

What was the attitude of the different powers to the Berlin Issue?

West Germany -

• Chancellor Konrad Adenauer rejected all offers of peaceful co-existence and proposals for reunification.

• He saw no benefit in a treaty with East Germany and in fact feared that the socialists could gain control of W.Germany.

• He wanted free elections in a democratic gov.

France -

• the strongest supporter of free elections and Adenauer’s gov.

US -

• Eisenhower liked the idea of Berlin as a free city under UN jurisdiction and took pains to inform the US public this war would not occur.

• Kennedy was in favour for flexible diplomacy to end superpower conflicts through direct negotiations.

• Kennedy increased spending on defending West Berlin.

USSR -

• Khrushchev’s policies were inconsistent and ambivalent.

• He wanted a buffer zone and control of nuclear weapons near USSR

• 1961 Vienna Meeting with Kennedy was unsuccessful and Khrushchev gave him a 6 month deadline to sign a peace treaty and for Western influence to leave.

• to show strength - Khrushchev detonated Nuclear bomb in July of 1961.

MAO -

• Mao rejected Khrushchev’s policy of peaceful co-existence.

The Brain Drain

→ By 1961, 2.7 million East Germans had left their homes and moved across the border and in July 1961 alone it was estimated that 30,000 left East Berlin.

→ 12/13th of August 1961, the East Germans erected a wall, orders given by Ulbricht from Khrushchev.

→ The wall prevented future conflicts between US and USSR and refugee crisis ended.

What were the consequences of the Wall

1. The Atlantic Alliance was nearly broken by the Berlin Crisis - German-American relations suffered as the West Germans felt that the USA was unwilling to defend them; West Germany’s main allegiance would be to France from this point on.

2. The Construction of the Berlin Wall highlighted the weakness of the Soviet Bloc as well as the unappealing lifestyle within USSR. They would not use direct confrontation to solve the issue.

3. The Wall was so successful that Khrushchev ended his ultimatum in some respects tensions decreased.

The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

Causes -

1. The Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1962)

• Invasion Plan aimed to launch an amphibious attack on Cuba, using ex-Cuban military that would lead to an uprising on the island as it was assumed that Castro was unpopular. $5 million spent by US.

• The CIA revealed that most Cubans would not support an armed insurrection as most exiles were largely hated enemies of Cuba - invasion was likely to fail.

• JFK went ahead with the plan because he wanted to be ‘hard’ on communism. Defended US involvement by saying, ‘The basic issue in Cuba…is between the Cubans themselves.’ Last minute, JFK pulled out on US air support.

Results and implications of the failures -

1. USA was humiliated, operation became obviously US backed.

2. Castro requested assistance from the Soviets in the defence of Cuba.

3. Installation of nuclear weapons in Cuba.

Why did Khrushchev put missiles onto Cuba?

1. US had missiles in Turkey, which bordered the Soviet Union. Cuba close to US, USSR wanted to give them a taste of their own medicine.

2. Castro and Khrushchev feared another invasion of Cuba.

3. Khrushchev’s aim to seize a propaganda advantage after humiliation of Berlin Wall to acquire a bargaining chip against the stationing of US missiles in Europe.

How and why did this pose a threat to US interests?

• increased the Soviet’s first strike capability - warning time for missiles fired at US would be far less than missiles fired at USSR.

• US public felt more threatened, especially since Bay of Pigs was a failure.

Events -

The Height of the Crisis

• October 14th, a US U-2 spy plane discovered the missiles installations. President Kennedy was informed two days later and initially the news was kept from the US public.

• A small crisis committee, advised the US gov, the ExComm encouraged Kennedy to launch a surprise air attack on the missile installations in Cuba without any previous warning to USSR and to appeal to the UN as the USSR had the right of veto as a permanent Security Council member.

• Instead, plans were created for a possible full-scale invasion of Cuba by US forces, but these would only be activated after the dispatch of an ultimatum to the USSR demanding that Soviet missiles be withdrawn from the island.

22nd October 1962

Kennedy gave a televised address to the American public informing them of the installations and announced that a quarantine was placed on Cuba. US would retaliate if quarantine was broken.

The Soviets dispatched a ship heading to Cuba; the USA would consider this an act of war. Subsequent negotiations and compromises (many made by Robert Kennedy).

This resulted in Khrushchev ordering the ship to turn around, and the crisis was averted.

What negotiations took place?

• The Soviets agreed to dismantle and remove the weapons under UN supervision.

• Kennedy promised that the USA would not try another invasion on Cuba; it was also secretly agreed to dismantle and remove its nuclear weapons in Turkey.

Consequences of Crisis

1. USA - Reputation improved as Turkey missile removal was a secret.

2. USSR - Reputation of Khrushchev worsened in the eyes of the USSR and he was later removed for the damage he caused during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

3. CUBA - The Soviet decision to remove the missiles was seen as a betrayal to Castro and it convinced him that Cuba had to develop independently from the Superpowers.

4. CHINA - China saw the resolution of the crisis and the USSR’s unwillingness to challenge the US as final proof that the USSR was continuing to deteriorate as a powerful communist nation.

5. International Relations - Orthodox View; world was made a more secure place, 1)hotline from US → USSR 2) Treaties - Limited Test-Ban Treaty 1963, Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty 1968, this prevented signatories from transferring weapons to non-nuclear powers.

6. Arms race intensified.