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Chapter 8

Chapter 8: African Civilizations 1500 B.C. - A.D. 700

Chapter 8.1: Diverse Societies in Africa

Each African environment offers its own challenges.

The deserts are largely unsuitable for human life and also hamper people’s movement to more welcoming climates.

The largest deserts are the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari in the south.

Only a small part of the Sahara consists of sand dunes.
The rest is mostly a flat, gray wasteland of scattered rocks and gravel.

The rainforest is also uninhabitable.

It is sometimes referred to as “nature’s greenhouse” it produced mahogany and teak trees up to 150 feet tall/

Their leaves and branches form a dense canopy that keeps sunlight from reaching the forest floor.

The tsetse fly is what prevented Africans from using cattle, donkeys, and horses to farm near the rainforests.

The insect is deadly.

The northern coast and the southern tip of Africa have welcoming Mediterranean-type climates and fertile soil.

Because these coastal areas are so fertile, they are densely populated with farmers and herders.

Most people in Africa live on the savannas.

Savannas: grassy plains that include mountainous highlands, and tropical stretches.

They cover over 40 % of the continent.

The first humans appeared in the Great Rift Valley, a deep gash in the Earth’s crust that runs through the floor of the Red Sea and across eastern Africa.

They developed technologies that helped them survive in and then alter their surroundings.
They were nomadic hunter-gatherers.

Today some of the San of the Kalahari Desert and the BaMbuti of the rainforests of Congo are still hunter-gatherers.

The San travel in small bands of a few related families.
The men hunt with spears and bows and arrows, and the women and children gather roots and berries.

Eventually they learned to domesticate and raise a variety of animals for food.

The pastoralists were people who kept cattle, goats or sheep.

They were nomads who drove their animals to find water and good pastures for grazing during the dry season.

Experts believe that agriculture in Africa probably began by 6000 B.C.

To survive the dry land many moved east into the Nile Valley and south into West Africa.
Some also moved to the savannas.

Grain grew well in the savannas .
They also began to raise cattle here.

South and east of the rainforests, cattle raising became an important part of agricultural life.

The Africans that lived in the rainforests, planted roots, such as yams that needed little sun.
Growing their own crops allowed them to build permanent shelters in one location.

Settlements expanded because reliable food supplies led to longer, healthier lives and an increased birth rate.

It also led to some people being able to practice activities such as working metal, making pottery, and crafting jewelry.

The societies south of the Sahara shared common elements.

One of these elements was the importance of the basic social unit, the family.

Aside from the parents and children, this primary group often included grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins in an extended family.

Families that shared common ancestors sometimes formed groups known as clans.

They organized themselves into family groups.

They also developed belief systems that helped them understand and organize information about their world.

Nearly aloof these local religions involved a belief in one creator, or god.
They generally also included elements of animism.

Animism: a religion in which spirits play an important role in regulating daily life.
They believe that spirits are present in animals, plants, and other natural forces, and also take the form of the souls of their ancestors.

Few African societies had written languages.

Storytellers shared orally the history and literature of a culture.

In west Africa, the griots (storytellers) kept this history alive, passing it from parent to child.

Archaeologists’ main source of information about early West African cultures has been from artifacts such as pottery, charcoal, and slag- a waste product of iron smelting.

Scientists can piece together a picture of life in West Africa as early as 500 B.C.
The peoples of Africa south of the Sahara seem to have skipped the Copper and Bronze ages and moved directly into the Iron Age.

Evidence of Iron production was dated to around 500 B.C.

This was a major technological achievement of the ancient Nok of sub-Saharan Africa.

West Africa’s earliest known culture was that of the Nok people.

They lived in what is now Nigeria between 500 B.C. and A.D. 200.
Their name came from the village where the first artifacts from their culture were discovered
Nok artifacts have been found in an area stretching for 300 miles between the Niger and Benue rivers.
They were the first West African people known to smelt iron.

The iron was fashioned into tools for farming and weapons for hunting.

In the region south of the Sahel, most Africans lived in small villages.

Cities began to develop sometime between 600 B.C. and 200 B.C.

Usually they were in areas along rivers or at an oasis.

One of these cities was Djenne-Djeno.

It was uncovered by archaeologists in 1977.
It is located on a tributary of the Niger River in West Africa.
Scientists discovered hundreds of thousands of artifacts.

These objects included pottery,copper hair ornaments, clay toys, glass beads, stone bracelets, and iron knives.
The oldest objects found there dated from 250 B.C,

At its height, it had 50,000 residents.
People lived in round reed huts plastered with mud.

They later built enclosed houses made of mud bricks.
They fished in the Niger River, herded cattle, and raised rice on the river’s fertile floodplains.

Chapter 8.2: Migration

Migration: a permanent move from one country or region to another.

The causes of migrations fall into three categories: environmental, economic, and political.

In the 15th century the Ottomans’ drive for power pushed them to move all over the ancient world to create a massive empire.
As the world became more industrialized, more people moved to cities where work in factories was available.

When looking at migration, historians speak of push-pull factors.

These factors can either push people out of an area r pull them into an area.

An example of a pull factor might be abundant land that attracts people.
On the other hand, the depletion of natural resources forces people away from a location.

There were effects to migration, both positive and negative:

Redistribution of the population may change population density
Cultural blending of languages or ways of life may occur
Ideas and technologies may be shared.
People’s quality of life may be improved as a result of moving
Clashes between groups may create unrest, persecution, or even war
Environmental conditions may change, causing famine or depleted natural resources.
Employment opportunities may dry up, creating unemployment and poverty.

One way experts can trace the pattern of movement of people over time is by studying the spread of languages.

People bring their language with them when they move to new locations.
A Bantu language is the first language of nearly ⅓ of all Africans.

The Bantu speaking peoples originally lived in the savanna south of the Sahara, in the area that is now southeastern Nigeria.
The Bantu peoples were not one people, but rather a group of peoples who shared certain cultural characteristics.

They were farmers and nomadic herders who developed and passed along the skill of ironworking.

They taught the slash and burn technique.

Chapter 8.3: The Kingdom of Aksum

Under Zoskales, who was thought to be the first king of Aksum, it seized areas along the Red Sea and the Blue Nile in Africa.

Aksum’s location and expansion made it a hub for caravan routes to Egypt and Meroe.

It became an international trading power.

Aksumite merchants traded necessities such as salt and luxuries such as rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, ivory, emeralds, and gold.

In return they chose from items such as imported cloth, class, olive oil, wine, brass, iron, and copper.

The Kingdom of Aksum reached its height between A.D. 325 and 360, when a strong ruler named Ezana occupied the throne.

He first conquered the part of the Arabian peninsula that is now Yemen.
The then turned his attention to Kush, which had already begun to decline.

In 350 he conquered the Kushites and burned Meroe to the ground.

From the beginning the Aksumites had a diverse cultural heritage.

This blend included traditions of the Arab peoples who crossed the Red Sea into Arica and those of the Kushite peoples they settled among.

As the kingdom expanded and became a powerful trading center, it attracted people from all over the ancient world.

The port city of Adulis was particularly cosmopolitan.

It included people from Aksum’s widespread trading partners, such as Egypt, Arabia, Greece, Rome, Persia, India, and even Byzantium.

In the babble of tongues heard in Aksum, Greek stood out as the international languages of the time.

The Aksumites believed in one god.

They called their god Mahrem and believed that their kings was directly descended from him.
King Ezana eventually converted to Christianity and Chritianity strengthened its hold in Aksum.

Aksum was the only known African kingdom to have developed a written language.

It was also the first state south of the Sahara to mint its own coins.

The Aksumites created a new method of Agriculture to adapt to their hilly environment.

This increased the productivity of their land.
Terraces helped the soil retain water and prevented its being washed downhill in heavy rains.

Aksum’s cultural and technological achievements enabled it to last for 800 years.

The kingdom declined under invaders who practiced the religon called Islam.

In 710 they destroyed Adulis, which cut Aksum off from the major ports along both the Red Sea and the Mediterranean.

Eventually Aksum became isolated from other Christian settlements.

</body></html>

Chapter 8

Chapter 8: African Civilizations 1500 B.C. - A.D. 700

Chapter 8.1: Diverse Societies in Africa

Each African environment offers its own challenges.

The deserts are largely unsuitable for human life and also hamper people’s movement to more welcoming climates.

The largest deserts are the Sahara in the north and the Kalahari in the south.

Only a small part of the Sahara consists of sand dunes.
The rest is mostly a flat, gray wasteland of scattered rocks and gravel.

The rainforest is also uninhabitable.

It is sometimes referred to as “nature’s greenhouse” it produced mahogany and teak trees up to 150 feet tall/

Their leaves and branches form a dense canopy that keeps sunlight from reaching the forest floor.

The tsetse fly is what prevented Africans from using cattle, donkeys, and horses to farm near the rainforests.

The insect is deadly.

The northern coast and the southern tip of Africa have welcoming Mediterranean-type climates and fertile soil.

Because these coastal areas are so fertile, they are densely populated with farmers and herders.

Most people in Africa live on the savannas.

Savannas: grassy plains that include mountainous highlands, and tropical stretches.

They cover over 40 % of the continent.

The first humans appeared in the Great Rift Valley, a deep gash in the Earth’s crust that runs through the floor of the Red Sea and across eastern Africa.

They developed technologies that helped them survive in and then alter their surroundings.
They were nomadic hunter-gatherers.

Today some of the San of the Kalahari Desert and the BaMbuti of the rainforests of Congo are still hunter-gatherers.

The San travel in small bands of a few related families.
The men hunt with spears and bows and arrows, and the women and children gather roots and berries.

Eventually they learned to domesticate and raise a variety of animals for food.

The pastoralists were people who kept cattle, goats or sheep.

They were nomads who drove their animals to find water and good pastures for grazing during the dry season.

Experts believe that agriculture in Africa probably began by 6000 B.C.

To survive the dry land many moved east into the Nile Valley and south into West Africa.
Some also moved to the savannas.

Grain grew well in the savannas .
They also began to raise cattle here.

South and east of the rainforests, cattle raising became an important part of agricultural life.

The Africans that lived in the rainforests, planted roots, such as yams that needed little sun.
Growing their own crops allowed them to build permanent shelters in one location.

Settlements expanded because reliable food supplies led to longer, healthier lives and an increased birth rate.

It also led to some people being able to practice activities such as working metal, making pottery, and crafting jewelry.

The societies south of the Sahara shared common elements.

One of these elements was the importance of the basic social unit, the family.

Aside from the parents and children, this primary group often included grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins in an extended family.

Families that shared common ancestors sometimes formed groups known as clans.

They organized themselves into family groups.

They also developed belief systems that helped them understand and organize information about their world.

Nearly aloof these local religions involved a belief in one creator, or god.
They generally also included elements of animism.

Animism: a religion in which spirits play an important role in regulating daily life.
They believe that spirits are present in animals, plants, and other natural forces, and also take the form of the souls of their ancestors.

Few African societies had written languages.

Storytellers shared orally the history and literature of a culture.

In west Africa, the griots (storytellers) kept this history alive, passing it from parent to child.

Archaeologists’ main source of information about early West African cultures has been from artifacts such as pottery, charcoal, and slag- a waste product of iron smelting.

Scientists can piece together a picture of life in West Africa as early as 500 B.C.
The peoples of Africa south of the Sahara seem to have skipped the Copper and Bronze ages and moved directly into the Iron Age.

Evidence of Iron production was dated to around 500 B.C.

This was a major technological achievement of the ancient Nok of sub-Saharan Africa.

West Africa’s earliest known culture was that of the Nok people.

They lived in what is now Nigeria between 500 B.C. and A.D. 200.
Their name came from the village where the first artifacts from their culture were discovered
Nok artifacts have been found in an area stretching for 300 miles between the Niger and Benue rivers.
They were the first West African people known to smelt iron.

The iron was fashioned into tools for farming and weapons for hunting.

In the region south of the Sahel, most Africans lived in small villages.

Cities began to develop sometime between 600 B.C. and 200 B.C.

Usually they were in areas along rivers or at an oasis.

One of these cities was Djenne-Djeno.

It was uncovered by archaeologists in 1977.
It is located on a tributary of the Niger River in West Africa.
Scientists discovered hundreds of thousands of artifacts.

These objects included pottery,copper hair ornaments, clay toys, glass beads, stone bracelets, and iron knives.
The oldest objects found there dated from 250 B.C,

At its height, it had 50,000 residents.
People lived in round reed huts plastered with mud.

They later built enclosed houses made of mud bricks.
They fished in the Niger River, herded cattle, and raised rice on the river’s fertile floodplains.

Chapter 8.2: Migration

Migration: a permanent move from one country or region to another.

The causes of migrations fall into three categories: environmental, economic, and political.

In the 15th century the Ottomans’ drive for power pushed them to move all over the ancient world to create a massive empire.
As the world became more industrialized, more people moved to cities where work in factories was available.

When looking at migration, historians speak of push-pull factors.

These factors can either push people out of an area r pull them into an area.

An example of a pull factor might be abundant land that attracts people.
On the other hand, the depletion of natural resources forces people away from a location.

There were effects to migration, both positive and negative:

Redistribution of the population may change population density
Cultural blending of languages or ways of life may occur
Ideas and technologies may be shared.
People’s quality of life may be improved as a result of moving
Clashes between groups may create unrest, persecution, or even war
Environmental conditions may change, causing famine or depleted natural resources.
Employment opportunities may dry up, creating unemployment and poverty.

One way experts can trace the pattern of movement of people over time is by studying the spread of languages.

People bring their language with them when they move to new locations.
A Bantu language is the first language of nearly ⅓ of all Africans.

The Bantu speaking peoples originally lived in the savanna south of the Sahara, in the area that is now southeastern Nigeria.
The Bantu peoples were not one people, but rather a group of peoples who shared certain cultural characteristics.

They were farmers and nomadic herders who developed and passed along the skill of ironworking.

They taught the slash and burn technique.

Chapter 8.3: The Kingdom of Aksum

Under Zoskales, who was thought to be the first king of Aksum, it seized areas along the Red Sea and the Blue Nile in Africa.

Aksum’s location and expansion made it a hub for caravan routes to Egypt and Meroe.

It became an international trading power.

Aksumite merchants traded necessities such as salt and luxuries such as rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, ivory, emeralds, and gold.

In return they chose from items such as imported cloth, class, olive oil, wine, brass, iron, and copper.

The Kingdom of Aksum reached its height between A.D. 325 and 360, when a strong ruler named Ezana occupied the throne.

He first conquered the part of the Arabian peninsula that is now Yemen.
The then turned his attention to Kush, which had already begun to decline.

In 350 he conquered the Kushites and burned Meroe to the ground.

From the beginning the Aksumites had a diverse cultural heritage.

This blend included traditions of the Arab peoples who crossed the Red Sea into Arica and those of the Kushite peoples they settled among.

As the kingdom expanded and became a powerful trading center, it attracted people from all over the ancient world.

The port city of Adulis was particularly cosmopolitan.

It included people from Aksum’s widespread trading partners, such as Egypt, Arabia, Greece, Rome, Persia, India, and even Byzantium.

In the babble of tongues heard in Aksum, Greek stood out as the international languages of the time.

The Aksumites believed in one god.

They called their god Mahrem and believed that their kings was directly descended from him.
King Ezana eventually converted to Christianity and Chritianity strengthened its hold in Aksum.

Aksum was the only known African kingdom to have developed a written language.

It was also the first state south of the Sahara to mint its own coins.

The Aksumites created a new method of Agriculture to adapt to their hilly environment.

This increased the productivity of their land.
Terraces helped the soil retain water and prevented its being washed downhill in heavy rains.

Aksum’s cultural and technological achievements enabled it to last for 800 years.

The kingdom declined under invaders who practiced the religon called Islam.

In 710 they destroyed Adulis, which cut Aksum off from the major ports along both the Red Sea and the Mediterranean.

Eventually Aksum became isolated from other Christian settlements.

</body></html>

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