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Learning Lecture Notes

Learning Lecture 6

Is This Learning?

  • Situational Analysis:

    • Cessation of thumb sucking by an infant: Yes

    • Acquisition of language in children: Yes

    • A computer program that generates random chess moves and learns from outcomes: Yes

    • A worm in a T maze showing behavioral changes in trials: Yes

    • MYCIN, a computer diagnosing infections with additional rules: No (Learning is typically attributed to adaptive behavior rather than mere data processing.)

What Is Learning?

  • Definition: Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

How Do We Learn?

  • Mechanism of Learning:

    • We learn by association.

    • Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.

Associative Learning

  • Definition: Learning that involves associating one stimulus with another.

Example 1: Sea Snail

  • Event 1: Sea snail associates splash with tail shock.

Example 2: Lightning and Thunder

  • Stimulus 1: Lightning;

  • Stimulus 2: Thunder;

  • Response: We wince anticipating thunder upon seeing lightning.

Example 3: Responding with Consequence

  • Response: Balancing a ball.

  • Consequence: Receiving food strengthens the behavior.

Example 4: Candy Vending Machine

  • Stimulus: Pushing vending machine button results in receiving a candy bar, reinforcing the behavior.

Types of Learning

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

  • Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning

  • Pavlov’s Dog Experiments:

    • Before Conditioning:

    • Food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).

    • The tone (neutral stimulus) does not produce salivation.

    • During Conditioning:

    • The neutral stimulus (tone) is paired with the US (food), resulting in salivation (UR).

    • After Conditioning:

    • The neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR).

Multiple Choice Question

  • In classical conditioning, which is an originally irrelevant stimulus that triggers a learned response?

    • Unconditioned Response (UR);

    • Unconditioned Stimulus (US);

    • Conditioned Response (CR);

    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

Pavlov’s Process

  1. Before Conditioning:

    • Food (US) → Salivation (UR)

    • Tone (Neutral Stimulus) → No Salivation

  2. During Conditioning:

    • Tone + Food → Salivation

  3. After Conditioning:

    • Tone (CS) → Salivation (CR)

Classical Conditioning: Concepts

  • Extinction:

    • Gradual weakening of CR when CS is presented without US.

    • Graphical Representation:

    • Response (CR) decreases over trials when US is absent after conditioning.

  • Discrimination:

    • Differential responding between classes of stimuli.

  • Generalization:

    • Responding to stimuli similar to the CS; Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate with similar stimuli such as vibrators on the thigh.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

  • Fear Conditioning:

    • Example: Watson and Raynor’s Little Albert Experiment

    • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Loud noise

    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): White rat

    • Unconditioned Response (UR) → Fear;

    • Conditioned Response (CR) → Fear.

  • Health Applications:

    • Drug cravings and treatment for substance-use disorders.

    • Food cravings and difficulty avoiding sweets.

    • Classical conditioning effects on immune responses.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning associations between behavior and consequences.

  • Distinction from Classical Conditioning:

    • Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic response to a stimulus).

    • Operant conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewards or punishments).

B.F. Skinner's Methods

  • Skinner Box (operant chamber) comprises various components such as levers, pellets, and signals for reinforcement.

Shaping Behavior

  • Definition: Reinforcing closer approximations to a desired behavior.

  • Example: Shaping animals to discriminate between stimuli based on shape, color, and size.

Types of Reinforcers

  • Positive Reinforcer: Introduction of a positive stimulus (e.g., rewards).

  • Negative Reinforcer: Removal of a negative stimulus (relief from pain).

  • Primary vs. Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcers

Behavior and Reinforcement Example

  • Scenario: Cleaning

    • Positive Stimulus Introduced: Candy reinforces cleaning behavior.

    • Negative Stimulus Removed: Headaches relieved through taking aspirin.

Understanding Punishment

  • Distinction: Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement.

  • Types of Punishment:

    • Presentation of negative stimuli (positive punishment) or removal of positive stimuli (negative punishment).

Multiple Choice Regarding Consequences

  • Example: A basketball player receiving a penalty for a foul illustrates a type of punishment.

  • Distinctions between PR (positive reinforcement), NR (negative reinforcement), PP (positive punishment), and NP (negative punishment) are necessary for proper classification.

Alternative to Punishment

  • Using Positive Reinforcement to discourage behaviors by reinforcing incompatible responses rather than applying punishments.

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement

  • Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses; high rate of responding with pause after reinforcement.

  • Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses; higher rate of responding with no pause.

  • Fixed Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed time period; lower rates with absences between reinforcement.

  • Variable Interval Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after varying time periods; constant behavior with no pauses.

Multiple Choice: Examples of Reinforcement Schedules

  • Scenario: Coffee shop rewarding every 10 drinks purchased is an example of fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

  • In schools, immediate feedback through quizzing and behavior plans assist children with disabilities.

  • In sports, reinforcement for minor milestones enhances performance.

  • In social media, likes and notifications serve as positive reinforcers through variable ratio reinforcement.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning associations between involuntary events, automatic responses; extinction occurs when CS presented alone.

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning associations between voluntary behavior and consequences; extinction occurs when reinforcement stops.

Observational Learning

  • Definition: Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Modeling: Observing and imitating behaviors.

    • Mirror Neurons: Serve as the neural basis for observational learning.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies

  • Findings: Observing aggressive behavior impact on imitation by children; vicarious reinforcement affects behavior tendencies.

Modeling Violence

  • Research indicates media violence may increase aggressive expression but does not directly lead to real-world violence according to studies.

Video Resources

  • Integrate visual demonstrations through links to relevant video examples regarding operant conditioning and observational learning.