AP Study Guide - Part 1

The 100 Years’ War

King Edward III of England was unhappy with Philip VI of France not giving back a part of Guienne that his predecessor (Charles VI) took. The English also tried to take over the Flanders, and Phillip also supported Scotland’s revolt against the English. It was basically a lot of tension between the two countries, as well as tensions over land and power. Because of this, France was destroyed in the Hundred Years’ War, and feudalism was also destroyed. This left place for a new social structure to emerge, as well as losing trust in the religious systems.

*Joan of Arc was an influential fighter for the French people, and she was burned at the stake by the English after her capture

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The Black Death

The Black Plague was spread through small animals, like fleas and rats, and it was able to spread so quickly because of the lack of hygiene in Europe at the time. Bodies weren’t dealt with properly, and waste was dumped into rivers (their drinking sources). The Black Death caused the targeting of Jewish communities because they practiced more hygiene. This caused the desperate Church and people to blame it on the Jewish as some sort of plot against Christians(?). It also caused mass death throughout Europe, about one-third of the European population. It also led to mass socio-political, economic, and religious changes in Italy (influenced Renaissance). Some peasants lost faith in the church/government, because they had no power over this disaster. 

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The Great Schism

The Great Schism was caused by the battle between the traditional Roman Catholic Church and their values and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Papal authority was also rejected by the Eastern Orthodox churches and caused tension. There were also just socio political/economic differences between the East and West which caused more of a split. Things include the language and culture barrier, and the lack of communication. As a result, the Church was split into two denominations, the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic. The split also created an “otherness” which caused hostility. (Fourth Crusade, Sack of Constantinople). It also led to the later “Babylonian Captivity” when the popes no longer lived in France and Pope Boniface was thrown into jail and Clement V became the new pope.

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The Commercial Revolution 

The Commercial Revolution started in the 11th century, and Europe became connected to the rest of the world. European influence was spread throughout trade routes. The commerce system was reworked, with guilds and trade based on actual currency. It also helped the exploration of Europeans to other continents. This set the stage for colonialism and the Industrial Revolution in the future because it set up trade and exploration.

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💥Renaissance Humanism  (Machiavelli, da Vinci, Castiglione)

Renaissance Humanism has its roots in the ending of the Medieval Era which caused people to see that there was more to life than what the royals were showing them. Events like the Black Plague and the 100 Years’ War were events where the grounds of society at the time were shaken and made people question the morals of the upper class people in the feudal system. Due to this, many people, including Machiavelli, da Vinci, Catiglione, Michaelangelo, and others became known as “Renaissance Men”, i.e. men who uphold the Renaissance ideals and humanism. They often revel for change in society where they see fit, with writers like Christine de Pizan fighting for women’s rights to education. Italian Humanism had a focus on secularism and individualism!

• Machiavelli’s work: Machiavelli’s The Prince describes how a ruler should be. The main idea is that a ruler should be well liked/be thought of well, though it is better to be feared than loved (power!!). A ruler should also have the capacity to do evil, and a ruler doesn’t have to be as good as he appears; quite the opposite in fact. He should be cruel and greedy in order to gain the most power possible, yet appear as a morally good person to the media. It shows how people’s opinion is becoming more valued; drastically different from Medieval times where royals couldn't care less what peasants thought of him and ruled through ignorance and fear of peasants.

• Christine de Pizan: The deep seeded patriarchal and her father, Thomas de Pizan, a scholar/physician/astrologer, who encouraged her education, shaped Christine de Pizan’s stance. Because she had the support and the privilege to be educated, she was able to see how great and nourishing it was. Therefore, she wanted to advocate for other women to be allowed it as well. Though at the time her essays were highly contested by the mainly male philosophers and scientists, today it is regarded as one of the first feminist pieces of literature. Although the men in the society did not appreciate her works, she helped women to feel empowered and better about themselves. She was the most public starter of the feminist movement, as she always published essays, poems, and other literature supporting her feminist beliefs.

• Castiglione: Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier focuses on the perfect man; that is, for the Italian Renaissance. He describes the perfect Italian Renaissance man, how he should be likable and strong, popular with the ladies and a well rounded person. He talks about how he should be harsh and cold with enemies, but warm and caring towards his community. He also describes the role of women in society, and that is to be quiet, delicate and have “feminine features”. He says that a woman having the traits of a man that he describes is preposterous and certainly not attractive. Overall, his book continued the cycle of the patriarchy and spread misogynistic ideas. This is a very upper class and privileged view he has on society.

💥Renaissance artists (Raphael’s School of Athens, Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, da Vinci)

The Renaissance artists were able to be supported by the wealth that cities in Italy provided, like Florence, Milan, Venice, and Rome. Especially wealthy upper class families, because they basically had rule over these cities because there were no kings. These wealthy upper class families, namely the de Medici family, were able to support and commission artists and helped to strengthen the economy even more.

• Raphael’s School of Athens: The painting really shows such an improvement in society. It is, of course, a painting centered around education and the pursuit of learning. It is surrounded by Greco-Roman influences, which show the importance they placed on that culture as well as the things they learned from it. It had values such as humanism, education, individualism, secularism, etc, and even the painting itself is a marvel. The colors, lighting, perspective, and accuracy of the painting point to how influential and complicated it is. The technique used is very advanced and shows how they were so advanced in terms of artistic skills.

• Da Vinci: The environment created in Florence at the time enabled him to be able to paint and be successful as an artist. The wealthy merchant class and lack of a royalty system, as well as a flourishing economy made it so artists like Da Vinci could be commissioned to paint and sculpt for others. In other words, they were well off enough to have the leisure time to invest in the arts. Similar to Michelangelo, he created more prestige for Florence and also for the modern world. His technique and accuracy was very good, and many talented artists nowadays cannot recreate it to the same degree.

• Michelangelo: Similar to Da Vinci, the environment in Florence created an environment where people could be a freelance artist and actually have it be a supporting job. Michelangelo’s work is regarded as very inspiring and amazing; even in modern standards. It shows the effect he had on people back then, as well as now. It represents the skill he had, regarding proportions, accuracy, and technique. He also attracted tourism for cities such as Florence for his work.

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The de Medici family 

The de Medici family was one of the most powerful and influential groups in European history, wool merchants and bankers They innovated new banking systems, and funded the arts and humanism. Cosimo de Medici particularly supported the Renaissance humanism and art and this helped

Funded the arts-patronage of artists like Michalangelo and Da Vinci. Florence constructed many buildings to support Renaissance ideals such as libraries, churches and academies and paid prominent artists to decorate it. Although they weren’t royalty, they were extremely prominent and helped to challenge the medieval ideals of royal prominence.

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Northern Humanism  (Erasmus, Jan Van Eyck, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Rembrandt, More )

The Northern Humanist movement was largely caused by the lack of a king, which gave them freedom to think outside the box. Because of this, it was ruled by wealthy patron families, and they helped encourage people’s creativity to benefit the state rather than just the individual (Da Vinci). The effects of this included a focus on the state (which also included the RCC!). Their heavy focus on Catholicism and religion led to other subjects being intertwined with that (science, philosophy, etc.). This is evident in the works of Thomas More. he was an advocate for Christian humanism, and his essay Utopia shows how he envisions a perfect society that was Catholic.

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💥Martin Luther 

Martin Luther was a monk, professor, and even studied law at one point. He is a product of his time, and recognized the issues within the Roman Catholic Church system (clerical immorality, ignorance, pluralism). He nailed up his 95 Theses (fearfully, as he was still a devout Christian), which sparked a lot of controversy and revolt. Peasants revolted not only due to issues in the Church, but in society as well. Martin Luther did not approve of this, and actively condemned the revolts, because he only wanted religious reform, and he thought the peasants were greedy and brutish. He entrusted the creation and leadership of his new religion, Lutheranism, with nobles (Frederich of Saxony), because he thought that they were the only people he could trust. This led to more issues because nobles were just as greedy as the peasants but Luther was in denial. HE also does not want to recant his ideas, even when threatened with execution, and refuses to go to the Council of Trent. His ideas and translation of the Bible into modern dialect led to long standing turmoil and wars of religion throughout Europe.

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The Council of Trent 

The Council of Trent was a successful attempt to bring people who were on the fence about converting to Lutheranism back to Catholicism. It was called by Pope Paul III, and the goal was to reform the Church internally. However, the response was very late, because the Church didn’t want to respond before because they feared losing power. So they just ignored Lutheranism. Because of the late response, Lutheranism was not eradicated, however the spread was slowed. Due to territorial reasons, it was cut short and never re-pursued.

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Catholic and Counter Reformations 

The Catholic Reformation encompassed the Council of Trent; it was caused by the fear of losing power and support because of Lutheranism. The Church knew they needed to do something, and they decided to try to bring people on the fence back to Catholicism. They also, with the help of Pope Paul III, internally “reformed” the Church. That was mainly all that it succeeded at doing.

The Counter Reformation, on the other hand, was more about persecution and scaring people. It was largely unsuccessful, and some main things they did were burn heretic books, create new religious orders (Jesuits, etc), and the Spanish Inquisition. It led to a lot of anger/revolt (wars of religion).

💥16th – 18th century family dynamics 

Pre 16-18th century, men were the head of the household, and the family structure was more the benefit of everyone. Children would work too to benefit their families, and chores around the house were expected. Women also had a lot of children, but because of the high infant mortality rate, not many survived. However, in the 16th to 18th century, peasants became more educated. Peasants aren't as ignorant as they once were, and families became more complex (educated, less superstitious, (more) meaningful lives). They improved homes, weaponry, agriculture, transportation, etc, because of their education, and in turn were able to live longer lives.

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💥John Calvin 

John Calvin wrote the Institutes of the Christian Religion, which was the basis for the ideas of Calvinism. He focused on ideas of predestination and an “elite class”. The Elect would be the select few that would go to heaven, and they could find out they were likely part of the Elect by being prosperous and having good things come to them. So, this religion attracted a lot of middle class and small communities. Some of note are the original Geneva, and Dutch colonies (Netherlands!). This is significant because it is one of the reasons for wars of religion, and it was later legalized in the German states along with Lutheranism with the passing of the Peace of Westphalia.

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Anabaptism 

Anabaptism promoted the individual interpretation of the Bible through the “voice of God” which they directly hear. It was prevalent in the Swiss area where it was created by Conrad Grabel. It promoted individualism, not just in religion, but in other aspects of society as well. It was often favored by radicals who rejected authority and society. Anabaptists weren’t very popular for this reason, and they were largely persecuted. Lutherans and Catholic alike would persecute them during wars of religion 

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The Peasants’ Revolt (1525) 

The Peasants’ Revolt happened in Germany, and it was the uprising of the lower class against nobles. It was sparked by the posting of the 95 Theses’ by Martin Luther, but it extended past that. The peasants were revolting against their systematic oppression as well as for freedom of religion. They agreed with the corruption of the Catholic Church, and also identified corruption within nobility and monarchy. This was significant because it also showed the beginning of a change in mindset for people. While some of them were radical and violent, set on tearing down nobles and their castles, some of them proved they were capable of compromise and civility. It was only the beginning of this change though, so they didn’t get very far in their revolt. The revolts ultimately led to a reduction of the rights of the people so such revolts wouldn’t happen again.

💥Hapsburg rulers  (Charles V, Philip II)

Charles V of the HRE was ruler of the German States during the time of the battle between Catholicism and Lutheranism. He waged many wars against France and the Ottoman Empire and eventually abdicated in 1556. During his rule, he had control over Spanish lands, as well as Dutch lands. He let his son, Philip II, take over those lands after his abdication. He is important, because after the Peace of Augsburg was passed under his rule, it would lead to wars of religion in the future. He was also a big defender of Catholicism, and for the longest time he wanted to keep Protestantism out of his country. However, to end conflicts and to appease nobles and rulers, he allowed them to pick either Catholicism or Lutheranism. Philip the II was a strong defender of Catholicism, and wanted to impose it all across his territory. That eventually led to conflict and war with the Dutch because they wanted to remain Protestant. He also established colonies in the New World, but they weren’t very lucrative until a couple of centuries later. His excessive focus as the self-proclaimed protector of Catholicism overshadowed his control of the economy. The gap between rich and poor was exposed under his rule, and he eventually had to declare bankruptcy. He supported the Spanish Inquisition,obviously, and the execution of heretics.

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The Peace of Augsburg 

The Peace of Augsburg said that German princes could now pick what religion they wanted to follow. This was passed in Charles V’s last years of rule before his abdication, and it solidified a split of the German states. Not only were there political differences between the north and south, but now religious ones. The passing of the Peace of Augsburg also foreshadowed the later passing of the Peace of Westphalia and the Thirty Years’ War because it started a path towards popular sovereignty and more power to princes and rulers.

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The Spanish Armada 

It was the attempt by Philip II to take control of England and to make them Catholic. It was also part of Philip II’s plan to surround France from all angles (their big enemy!). However, they failed due to their inadequate ships which weren’t fit for sailing in the shallow English waters, and Elizabeth I’s strong military strategy. Because of the Spanish defeat, it allowed England to stay Protestant, and allowed for Elizabeth’s rule to be secured in England. It also allowed for some English to ally with the Netherlands and their fight against Philip II when he was trying to conquer them. 

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Elizabeth I (Act of Uniformity – Elizabethan Settlement)

Elizabeth I was the illegitimate daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boelyn. Due to this, she was not recognized as the Queen of England by the RCC or Catholics. So, she imposed the Act of Uniformity and her overall Elizabethan Settlement to try to remove Catholicism from her nation. The Act of Uniformity was the basis for the Elizabethan Church system and it enforced a common prayer book. Protestantism allows divorce, which would make Elizabeth a legitimate heir to the throne. Started by her father, Henry VIII, the Anglican Church was a way for Elizabeth to keep control over England and distance it from the RCC in Rome.

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Henry VIII (Act of Supremacy)

Henry VIII was the ruler of England during the time of the Protestant Reformation, and he used it to his political advantage. He ruled with an iron fist, and executed many who opposed him. He is infamous for his many marriages, and that led to him writing the Act of Supremacy (to legitimize his divorce). The Act of Supremacy basically said that he was the new leader of the Church of England and that the RCC’s authority didn’t matter in England. This was important because it started the separation of countries from the RCC’s authority. 

💥The 30 Years’ War 

The Thirty Years’ War is the conflict of the German States over religion and political control. There were 4 phases: in the Bohemian phase, the HRE Ferdinand II revoked religious tolerance, in an effort to thwart the Protestant movement. In the Danish phase, the King of Denmark attempted to help out the Lutheran princes, but he was ultimately unsuccessful. The Edict of Restitution was passed, which allowed Catholics to reclaim their monasteries and land that were seized by Protestants. The Swedish phase was marked by Gustavus Adolphus, the Lutheran king of Sweden, invading the HRE and was victorious over Catholics. In the last phase, the French phase, the French took over the fight for protestantism after Adolphus was killed in battle. This conflict ended with the passing of the Peace of Westphalia. The 30 Years’ War secured Protestantism for the German states, and legitimized it throughout Europe. It also solidified the split of the German states, and the start of France becoming a superpower. THis was because Germans lost a lot of their population, and Spain was in decline, especially after the Dutch became independent. 

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💥Peace of Westphalia 

The Peace of Westphalia nullified the Edict of Restitution, allowed Catholic, Calvinist, and Protestant religions, limited the power of the HRE, and increased nobility power. It was a significant turning point for European tolerance and secularization. The Netherlands also gained independence from the HRE, and the HRE was no longer as strong as it once was. French power was on the rise.

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Revolt in the Netherlands 

The Netherlands war of religion against Spain and Philip II was a Protestant win against Catholicism. It also led to the decline of Spain and the prospering of the Dutch. With help from William of Orange and his son, the Dutch were led to victory. After the Spanish Fury, where thousands of Dutch were killed after distraught Spanish soldiers lost their leader, Duke of Alba, they allied with the Southern states (modern-day Belgium). Even though they had religious differences (Southern states were Catholic, Northern were Protestant), they allied together to go against Philip II. The Northern Provinces joined together with the Union of Utrecht in alliance to declare their independence, and eventually after many years of war Philip II recognized their independence. This was another loss for Spain, and it was the continuation of their decline as a strong power.

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💥Dutch economic power in the 17th century 

The Dutch were extremely wealthy, due to their Calvinist origins as well as their geographical location. The “Elect” of Calvinism were rich, middle class people, which is why the Dutch colonies flourished. They also had an early industrial/agricultural revolution, which led to a more effective economy. Their location on the English channel allowed access to trade, as well as the North Sea. They were also much more secular, and due to their religion believed in a separation of Church and state. Their more advanced science aided their economy as well. 

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The Puritan Revolution (the Stuart kings, Oliver Cromwell)

The Puritan Revolution was a revolution led by Oliver Cromwell that went against the Stuart kings and the Royalists. The Stuart kings took control of the throne after Elizabeth I, and they wanted to go back to the original. They were against protestantism and parliament, and wanted to restore monarchy and Royalism. They did, during the reign of James, Charles, Charles, and James, the 4 Stuart kings. After the execution of Charles I by Oliver Cromwell, he took over as leader of the new English Parliament (the Commonwealth of England). He helped to bring England out of its decline, and it overall ended the absolute monarchism in England.

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💥The Glorious Revolution 

After James was dethroned, his daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange III were to take the throne. However, they were forced to sign a Bill of Rights if they wanted to rule. So, they agreed to heed to the Parliament, and thus began the constitutional monarchy of England. They were the first influential country to do so, and became the inspiration for many Enlightenment thinkers (Voltaire, Montesquieu, etc.). This separation of power idea was very new, and it leads to many modern European countries’ systems of government. The Bill of Rights is similar to the ones in the U.S. and the ideas of the Glorious Revolution are similar to the ideas of Montesquieu in his Spirit of the Laws.

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15th century Reconquista in Spain 

The Reconquista’s goal was to take back the Iberian peninsula from the Moors by the Spanish. Both sides fought for a long time, with the conflict starting in 711 and lasting until 1492. Eventually, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Aragon were married. With their allied power, they were able to win the Battle of Grenada and win control over the peninsula. Because of this conflict, Jewish and Muslim people living there were forced to convert or else they were removed.

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The Edict of Nantes  (The War of the Three Henrys, “Paris is worth a Mass”)

The Edict of Nantes allowed French Protestants (Huguenots) to practice their religion, which put an end to the war between Catholics and protestants in France. Before this, the St. Bartholomew's massacre occurred, which was the mass killing of Huguenots by Catholics, at (future) Henry the IV and Margaret’s wedding. They had attempted to unify Catholicism and Protestantism, because Henry was Protestant and Margaret was Catholic. Things didn’t turn out very well, and they almost died. So, the passing of the Edict of Nantes was very influential because it declared the end of the French Wars of Religion. It was radical because France was a very strict Catholic state before that.

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💥The Age of Discovery  (conquest of Aztec and Incan Empires; religion the pretext, gold the motive, joint stock companies)

From the late 15th century, Europeans began to rapidly expand their scope of exploration and began mapping and documenting trade routes and new continents. New routes to India and the Eastern Asian world were discovered (Columbus attempted to find a new way to India but “found” the Americas). With them, Europeans contributed to globalization and the spread of cultures and ideas. However, they also brought with them disease, which killed off a large amount of the Aztec and Incan Empires. Spanish conquistadors also helped to conquer the Aztec and Incan Empires, in order to gain power, gold, and to spread the word of God (an afterthought). Their main motive was the materials on the New World, but said they were spreading God’s word (religion the pretext, gold the motive). These conquests were often supported by joint stock companies, who would invest money into European exploration, and gain some of the profit and shares. This is the precursor (some overlap) to the Columbian Exchange and the mass colonization of the Americas. This influenced the economy and power of European countries. For example, Spain during the war with the Dutch struggled with inflation due to the influx of gold and silver from their colonies and ships.

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💥The Columbian Exchange 

The Columbian Exchange was “started” by Christopher Columbus’ discovery of the Americas and began around the late 15th century and forward. It connected trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Europeans would trade manufactured goods, guns, fabrics, and other goods with African kings in exchange for gold and slave labor. Those enslaved people would then be traded in the Americas, and the goods produced from this unethical labor would be sold back to Europeans (sugar, rice, tobacco, etc). This also contributed to the spread of disease in the Americas, and the use of slavery became a controversial topic within Europe. Some figures from the Enlightenment were completely opposed to it, while others supported it (David Hume, Immanuel Kant). It also led to debate once the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was written, because people who benefited from slavery advocated for people of color to be written out of this declaration. The effects of the Columbian Exchange are still felt today, with the oppression and rampant discrimination of Afro-Caribbean, Black, and Native American peoples.

Early modern witchcraft scares 

After the Reformation and wars of religion, Europe was politically and religiously unstable. Rulers wanted to prove their devotion and to be honest wanted someone to blame, and mass execution of accused witches began. Overall, it was just mass hysteria and unhappiness among the people with their situations. War, disease, and poverty were everywhere. Tens of thousands of people were executed after being accused of witchcraft, from Catholic Germany, to Spain, to England, and even within the American colonies. The witch hunts began to decline in the 17th century though, because authorities and the people realized that there wasn’t much basis for these accusations. Few, if any, of these “trials” were done legally, and it just led to the mass death of women (particularly older women). The early modern witchcraft scares wouldn’t be the last time religion was used to justify violence, though.

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💥Peter the Great 

Peter the Great helped to modernize and, in the process, westernize Russia. He implemented a lot of changes and reforms, like education, western appearances (shaving beards, changing clothing), navy and military advancements, and the creation of St. Petersburg. He was one of the “enlightened despots”. Although his reforms weren’t popular with all of the Russian population, particularly the boyars, it helped Russia to “catch up” with the rest of Europe, in terms of industrialization. Before that, their economy was mainly based on agriculture. His victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War also solidified his military power. Military expenses were a large part of their income. Education was also important to him, and young noblemen were required 5 years of education He also created St. Petersburg to “spy” on the Western world, and all of his reforms laid the groundwork for Catherine the Great of Russia and other, more “enlightened absolutists” of her time.

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18th century Partitions of Poland

Poland was split up by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, in order to settle power imbalances and to avoid a war. Poland was a weak country and they didn't have a strong kingdom. Russia got most of the land, because they were very powerful at the time (balance of power).

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💥Mercantilism 

Mercantilism is the economic concept of having more exports than imports. This increases the economic power of the country because they are spending less money on importing products, and at the same time gaining money from exports. It also encourages increased productivity of the nation, because making products worth buying requires education. It decreased trade relations, though, and imports were heavily restricted. A notable example is France during the reign of Louis XIV, and his financial minister Jean Baptiste Colbert. This was a very successful economy (for the most part), and helped to fund all of Louis XIV’s expensive wars and territorial ventures (in the beginning). However, its structure eventually led to economic problems within France and the revolution. Mercantilism also often leads to heavy taxes, and it contributed to the Columbian exchange (especially with Britain).

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Louis XIV (Versailles; Intendant System ; Colbert ; wars of … )

Louis the XIV, the “sun king”, was the epitome of Hobbes’ Leviathan. He had absolute power over the state of France, and was the prime example of an absolutist for future rulers.. The Palace of Versailles was used as a way to control the nobles so they would cause a Fronde situation (a “gilded cage”) and so he could keep an eye on them. He also implemented the Intendant System, further showing how he doesn’t trust nobility. He gives power of the bureaucracy to common people, who would not betray him (they need the money the job provided and therefore would not think of betraying the king). He nullified his grandfather’s Edict of Nantes with the Edict of Fontainebleau, and made France Catholic again so he could control it better. He also supported the excessive wars (including the War of Spanish Succession), in order to gain land and power, but he didn’t really get any of that. To fund these wars, he had the help of Colbert and his ideas of mercantilism. Old industries were revived, and new ones were created, and the French economy was prosperous. Unfortunately, he was succeeded, and after that the French economy began to suffer. Louis XIV kept France at war, even though their economy was strained. This led to generational debt, which was one of the causes for the French revolt during the 18th century. Although his dictator and solo rule seemed to be his strength, it was also his downfall, because he didn’t listen to advisors or the people who disliked his excessive war and economy.

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The Peace of Utrecht 

The Peace of Utrecht ended the War of Spanish Succession, which was the fight over the Spanish Crown. Philip V (Philip of Anjou) was to take the Crown, however he was a grandson of Louis the 14th. The Spanish throne was empty because the king before that, Charles II, was unable to have children to inherit the throne. The rest of Europe feared what an all-powerful mega state of Spain and France could do, so they went to war to prevent Philip from taking the throne (balance of power effect). After a long war, The Peace of Utrecht said that the Spanish and French crowns could never be one in the same, so Philip was allowed to take the Spanish crown if he acknowledged that he could not take the French crown too. It also gave power over the Strait of Gibraltar to Britain. This was influential because it contributed to the “balance of power” legacy of Louis XIV, and showed how countries can ally with each other to fight a greater enemy. 

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Bishop Bousset

Jacques-Benigne Bousset helped to contribute to the divine right and absolutist rule of Louis XIV. He suggests in his book Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture that respect and service for the king is the same as respect and service for God, because kings are God-appointed to rule over people on Earth. Because France was very Catholic at the time, and because Bossuet’s ideas were “based in scripture”, it helped to solidify the power Louis XIV had. He likened rebellion against the king to rebellion against God, and no one wanted to rebel against God because then you were going to hell. Bossuet’s books helped to prolong the continuation of divine right absolutism and monarchy in Europe.

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Rococo Art

Rococo art was very pastel and “feminine” and was a way for women to participate in the Enlightenment indirectly. It was a way for rich noblewomen to participate by being patrons of the arts. For example, Madame de Pompadour was able to participate politically by being the royal court’s mistress, and by being a patron of Voltaire and some Rococo artists, she could participate in the Enlightenment (informally). It was also a step towards aristocrats and patrons rather than the Church, and it also represented the aristocratic women. They would often hold salons so they could (indirectly) participate in Enlightenment debate. 

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The Pragmatic Sanction 

The Pragmatic Sanction was made by HRE Charles VI to make sure that his daughter, Maria Theresa, could be the new leader.. All the countries signed to agree to this, that Maria Theresa would be recognized as the new leader of Austria, and her husband Francis I would “officially” be the HRE. However, once she died, the war of Austrian Succession happened, because Frederick violated the sanction by invading Silesia. Soon, Maria Theresa had to fend for herself against all the surrounding countries trying to take her land.

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💥Enlightened Absolutism (Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great , Joseph II , Louis XV)

Enlightened absolutist rulers incorporated Enlightenment ideas into their rule. For example, Frederick the Great made a very militaristic state, but also focused on education for his people. He was a “servant of the state” and wanted to gain support of the people through them actually liking him. He helped his country to prosper economically and especially with their military, because it was highly respected as one of the best in all of Europe. Catherine the Great also tried to incorporate reforms into Russia. After killing her husband, she assumed full control of Russia. This helped her to institute her reformation of Russia. She improved education and lessened torture, and continued to westernize and modernize Russia, like Peter the Great had before her. Using Enlightenment ideas helped for her to become more popular among philosophes and the people (kinda). Joseph II was a big supporter of the Enlightenment and tried to free the people from serfdom. He did successfully do so, and he also later removed the payment in labor for housing. He was very radical in this way, but he tried to do too much too fast, and without a Constitution. So, his brother nullified his reforms. Louis XV was more of an absolutist, but he also incorporated enlightenment, which was kinda necessary considering France was the center of the Enlightenment of the time. He tried to continue Louis XIV’s complete absolutist rule, but he was unable to do so, considering that their economy could no longer support excess war and spending. Overall, Enlightened Absolutism was destined to fail because you can’t “educate” people but still try to suppress them. The economy depended on the education of the lower classes, so that they could develop more efficient ways of doing their jobs. But, this was also the downfall, because once lower classes begin to become educated, rulers can’t suppress them like they once did without the people revolting. 

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💥The Scientific Revolution  (Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Brahe, Newton, Descartes , Bacon)

The Scientific Revolution was a period of science and learning. Before this, Aristotelian and religious views were used to explain the world and the universe. This is what led to geocentrism in the post-Renaissance period. Once the Scientific Revolution began, with the help from translations of ancient texts by Muslim scholars, people began to actually question their surroundings. Scientific advances were also needed due to the age of expansion/discovery, which needed advancements in navigation and mapping systems. Copernicus was the first to hypothesize that the sun was in the center of the universe, but because he feared ridicule, he didn't publish his Copernican hypothesis until his death. It was significant because it was one of the first public times that the use of philosophy to justify theories was challenged. Geocentrism and by extension, the Catholic Church, was challenged as well. Galileo, Kepler, Brahe, and Newton all also contributed to the credibility of the Copernican hypothesis, as well as developing their own laws that added to scientific discovery. Later came Descartes and Bacon. Bacon believed in inductive reason (empiricism) aka “experimental philosophy”. Descartes believed in deductive reasoning, and reduced the physical and spiritual aspects of the world to matter (Cartesian dualism). These two methods (Bacon’s experimental only and rejection of mathematics, and Descartes’ “dogmatic rationalism”) were combined to create the modern scientific method. It influenced the later period of the Enlightenment, and they used the scientific method to justify their claims and issues they found in the world.

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💥Enlightenment (Voltaire, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, de Condorcet, etc …) 

The Enlightenment followed the Scientific Revolution, and the Scientific Revolution helped Enlightenment thinkers to use the scientific method and process to find issues in their society. Locke is most famous for his ideas of sensationalism (experiences shape people) and natural law, as well as his pro-Parliamentary government. Hobbes is most famous for his Leviathan ideas, and how human nature is ingrained at birth (brutish behavior!). Voltaire and Montesquieu both supported separation of powers, because they had distrust for the King (Louis XIV) and the lower classes. Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws was influential to the American Constitution and American government system, and outlines checks and balances for power. They both admired Britain’s Parliament. Rousseau believed that a minority should make a system of laws for the benefit of everyone else, but his ideas were taken out of context to justify totalitarianism. Enlightenment thinkers were mainly French (called the philosophes) because French was the language of intellectuals, they were responding to the rule of Louis XIV, and the “Republic of Letters” were participated in by France. Main ideas include equality and liberty for all, like natural law.

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The Encyclopedia

The Encyclopedia was edited by d'Alembert and Diderot, and it was for the purpose of sharing knowledge. Following the Scientific Revolution, there was a desire to catalog and share scientific knowledge and findings, so that future generations can learn and improve upon them. If they didn’t, then it would be like they had never conducted any experiments at all, because it is not shared and published. The Encyclopedia was basically all of that; a published record of (nearly) all published scientific findings of the time. Other scholars and philosophers could then use the book as reference for their own experiments. This process is influential in the creation of the modern encyclopedia, and the concept of sharing findings so others can use them to their benefit and for the benefit of humanity.

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Mary Wollstonecraft

Wollstonecraft was similar to Christine de Pizan, because she advocated for education for women. It is significant because it shows how many centuries earlier, de Pizan was advocating for the same thing, but now there is another woman still fighting for her rights. She believed that education should be available for everyone, and how by not giving women access to education they are stunting society. She says they are limiting 50% of the population from their full potential. This pattern continues on, as women still aren’t taken seriously and later they are barred from political group participation under Robespierre’s reign.

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Edmund Burke

Burke thought that religion was the source of society, because they have stood the test of time (mostly). He believed in tolerance, and was pro English Parliament. Because of this, he was a fan of the gradual change, so pro American Revolution, but not the French Revolution. He condemns/disapproves of the French Revolution, because he thinks that it was based on abstract ideas and was “too rational”. He thinks human emotion is much more complex using a Descartes-like dogmatic rationalism.

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💥Adam Smith (Physiocrats, Quesnay, Dupont)

Adam Smith introduces the ideas of economic liberalism. This is against the Old Regime of mercantilism in France, and his ideas were used by the physiocrats. Quesnay thinks that because agriculture is the only source of income that can produce a surplus (which helps growth), that industry and manufacturing are “sterile”. He coined the phrase “laissez faire, laissez passer”, implying the government should stay out of the industry. Du Pont was a supporter of free trade. They both supported physiocratic thought, which is a bit medieval and obviously pre-industrial revolutionary, because they didn’t see how industry can be a good part of the economy. Adam Smith also believes that every person should have an equal opportunity in the economy, and he was pro free competition. 

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💥Soc/Econ/Pol conditions in pre-revolutionary France 5

Pre-revolutionary France had a lot of instabilities. For one, their economy was suffering due to the generational debt caused by Louis XIV’s wars. Their economy depended heavily on the heavy taxation of the lower classes, which caused unrest among them. However, it wasn’t enough to pay off their debt. This adds to the social issues: France’s lower class were oppressed by the nobility and aristocracy. They were also struggling to have food, due to the crop famine that happened which led to an increase in bread prices. Politically, Louis XVI was not a good king. He was unconfident, and went back and forth between his rulings. He no longer had strong control over the people, and he was increasingly losing “divine right” power. It was significant because these are the issues that called for a revolution. France was on the decline, and something had to be done about it.

Cahiers 

The Cahiers were a list of “grievances” written by each of the Three Estates, and were to act as a guideline for reform when voting in new delegates and representatives into the Estates. The Cahiers were written just before the revolution in 1789, and the call for reform and issues they had with the government.

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The Women’s Bread March 

The Women’s Bread March was where women from Paris organized a march to Versailles demanding the prices be lowered on bread. This was on October 5th, 1789, and was one of the earlier actions of the revolution. However, it was very influential because it put pressure on the King and the National Assembly to do something about the people’s unhappiness, or face their wrath. This event likely influenced Louis XVI’s attempt to escape France, because he had already had an attempt on his life and his families’ lives in this march. It basically ended the rule of Louis XVI, because the day after, the National Assembly began to make more reforms and became the main law-making power.

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Declaration of Rights of man and Citizen

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen incorporated ideas of the Enlightenment into law. It talked about the unalienable and natural rights of man that they are given at birth. It also said that liberty was doing anything that one desired that doesn’t harm others. This was a very radical notion for a few reasons. For one, during the time of monarchist rule, the notion of liberty and freedom was very new. Second, these unalienable rights extended to all men; even men of color. During the time of the rise of slavery in the colonies and the Columbian exchange, this was a shock. Many argued against it, and some even asked the National Assembly to rescind those rights for people of color.

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The Levee en Masse

The Levee en Masse was the conscription of able bodied men during the French Revolution. This was later extended to all able bodied, unmarried men, and it increased the French military power. However, some people were unhappy about this, particularly the people of Vendée, and they revolted against it. They were ordinary people, and although they weren’t very trained, this conscription allowed them to outnumber their enemies and surprise them with the size of their army. It introduced the idea of the people of the nation fighting to protect their nation. Patriotism and nationalism was also introduced to make people motivated to eagerly fight for their nation.

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Civil Constitution of the Clergy

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was one of the reforms of the first “half” of the French Revolution. It took power away from the Church, and forced clergy members to sign an oath to be loyal to the government. It also said that there was a National Church with members voted by the people. The church land was taken as collateral to make the assignats (paper money), and as an effort to stabilize the economy. This shocked many of the conservative Christians and angered some of the people of France. France had been pretty Catholic since the reign of Louis the XIV, and only about half of the members of the Church signed this oath. This would later cause some people to revolt in Vendée during Robespierre’s reign, along with monarchists and counter-revolutionaries, because they felt betrayed by their government.

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Robespierre/Reign of Terror 

Robespierre was a radical member of the Jacobin club, and later of the National Convention and Committee of Public Safety. He started the second, and more radical half, of the French Revolution. After being granted “temporary dictatorial power”, he was able to temporarily get rid of Constitutional rights. He then went to “war against tyranny and liberty”, which was basically all of the monarchies of Europe (Austria, Prussia, Britain, etc). To increase war efforts, he implemented a radical plan, including a planned economy (“emergency socialism/communism”), the Reign of Terror (to weed out suspected traitors and enemies of liberty!), introduced a cultural revolution (new calendar, centralized measurement system), and promoted nationalism and patriotism (fight for your country because you love it! not because you are forced to). His Reign of Terror was probably the most remembered, where thousands of suspected “traitors” were executed without trial (because their Constitutional rights were suspended, you were guilty with no trial). However, Robespierre trusted the people to be honest a little too much, and many innocent people were executed due to personal grievances. Nationalism was a new concept in Europe, and it caused many members of French society to volunteer their lives in the war. In Robespierre’s The Terror Justified speech, he justifies terror as stemming from virtue, and justifying the deaths of innocents as part of the cost to protect France against “domestic enemies of liberty”. Eventually, he was executed, after the people had had enough of his war and terror. His legacy lives on in patriotism and as one of the earliest examples of the use of socialism/communism during times of war.

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18th century European birth rates (generalizations)

In the mid 18th century, the mortality rate began to decline because of advancements in quality of life and medicine, so people were dying less. Fertility rate was also around the same/increasing, so people were having more kids, and less people were dying. This led to a population increase in the late 18th century and into the 19th century.

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