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BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: May 6, 1856

• Birthplace: Freiberg, Moravia (now Czechoslovakia/Czech Republic) 

• Spent most of his life in Vienna, Austria (80 years)

• Death: September 23, 1939 - London, cancer of the mouth

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• Medical degree in University of Vienna

• Researched microscopic neuroanatomy with teacher Ernst Brücke 

• Studied hysteria with Charcot and Breuer

• 1900 – wrote Interpretation of Dreams

• 1900 – Wednesday Psychological Society

CHARACTERISTICS

• Scholarly, serious-minded youth

• Ambitious

• Drives - Constant motivational forces within a person that, as internal stimuli, cannot be avoided through flight

  • Eros/Libido/Sex Drive - Aim is pleasure that extends beyond genital satisfaction to include the entire body as invested with libido

  • Thanatos/Aggression/Destructive Drive - Outward manifestation of the death instinct

•  Anxiety - A felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the person against impending danger

  • Neurotic Anxiety - Apprehension about an unknown danger originating from id impulses but experienced in the ego

  • Moral Anxiety - Anxiety resulting from the ego's conflict with the superego

  • Realistic Anxiety - An unpleasant, nonspecific feeling resulting from the ego’s relationship with the external world

1. REPRESSION

• Involves forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the unconscious. 

• It is the most basic of all defense mechanisms because it is an active process in each of the others. 

• Many repressed experiences remain unconscious for a lifetime but others become conscious in a disguised form. 

2. REACTION FORMATION

• Is marked by the repression of one impulse and the ostentatious expression of its exact opposite. 

• For example, a teenage boy may have deep-seated unconscious sexual feelings for a teacher, but on the surface level he expresses exaggerated animosity toward that teacher.

3. DISPLACEMENT

• Is the redirecting of unacceptable urges and feelings onto people and objects in order to disguise or conceal their true nature.

• A woman greatly dislikes her boss but takes her anger out on her husband and children. 

4. FIXATION

• Develop when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development, making psychological change difficult. 

5. REGRESSION

• Takes place when a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes of behavior. 

6. PROJECTION

• Seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or behaviors that actually reside in one's own unconscious. 

• When carried to extremes, projection can become paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of persecution. 

• INTROJECTION 

  • Involves the incorporation of positive qualities of another person in order to reduce feelings of inadequacy. Hero worship might be a good example. 

7. SUBLIMATION

• Whereas other defense mechanisms are of dubious social value, sublimations contribute to the welfare of society. 

• They involve elevating the aim of the sexual instinct to a higher level and are manifested in cultural accomplishments, such as art, music, and other socially beneficial activities. 

8. RATIONALIZATION

• A defense mechanism that involves reinterpreting our behavior to make it seem more rational and acceptable to us.

• Sour-Grape: rationalize pain of failure or prize not worth the effort

• Sweet-Lemon: same as sour-grapes but phrased differently (“That team should be in a different league than us. Their school is larger and more competitive. We had no chance of beating them”)

1. INFANTILE PERIOD

• encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life

1. Oral Phase -  an infant is primarily motivated to receive pleasure through the mouth. Weaning is the principal source of frustration during this stage.

2. Anal Phase - occurs at about the second year of life, when toilet training is the child's chief source of frustration. 

*anal triad of orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy = anal character

3. Phallic Phase - boys and girls begin to have differing psychosexual development, which occurs around ages 3 or 4 years. For both genders, suppression of masturbation is the principle source of frustration. Oedipus complex castration complex  

2. LATENCY PERIOD

• About age 5 years until puberty—in which the sexual instinct is partially suppressed. 

3. GENITAL PERIOD 

• Begins with puberty when adolescents experience a reawakening of the genital aim of Eros, and it continues throughout adulthood. 

4. MATURITY

• A stage of psychological maturity in which the ego would be in control of the id and superego and in which consciousness would play a more important role in behavior.

• Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique

• Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique (late 1890s) 

• Free association

  • Patients are required to say whatever comes to mind, no matter how irrelevant or distasteful.

  • Transference of childhood sexual or aggressive feelings onto the therapist and away from symptom formation.

  • Resistance to change is seen as progress because it indicates that therapy has advanced beyond superficial conversation. 

• Dream Analysis

  • manifest content - conscious description

  • latent content - unconscious meaning of the dream that lies hidden from the dreamer.

  • Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is usually unconscious and can be known only through dream interpretation. 

• Freudian Slips 

  • Freud believed that slips of the tongue or pen, misreadings, incorrect hearings, misplacing of objects, and temporary forgetting of names or intentions are not chance accidents but reveal a person's unconscious intentions.

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birth date: February 7, 1870

• Birthplace: Rudolfsheim, Austria

• Death: May 28, 1937 - Aberdeen, Scotland - heart attack

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• 1895 - Medical degree - Eye specialist - psychiatry

• Serve military duty in Hungarian army 

• 1902 - Freud invited him to attend home lecture (Wednesday Psychology Society until 1908)

• October 1911 – resigned as president of Wednesday Psychological Society

• Formed Society for Individual Psychology

• Popular speaker in the United States

CHARACTERISTICS

• Weak and sickly

• Agnostic 

• Interest in social relationships 

• Fond of music, art and literature

1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is striving for success or superiority.

2. Subjective perceptions shape behavior and personality.

3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.

4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.

5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a style of life.

6. Style of life is molded by creative power.

THE FINAL GOAL

• A guide for the person to be motivated to strive 

• Fictional and has no objective existence

• Product of creative power

 CREATIVE POWER

• People’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their own personality

• Developed on 4 or 5 years old

COMPENSATION

• Reason people strive for superiority or success

• To make up for feelings of inferiority or weakness 

PERSONAL SUPERIORITY

• Happens when the person has little or no concern for others

• This is motivated largely by exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority - the presence of inferiority complex

SUCCESS

• Happens when a psychologically healthy person are motivated by social interest and success of all humankind

• When the person is concerned with goals beyond themselves

FICTIONALISM 

• Expectation of the future

• Subjective perception of reality

• May not be conscious or understood since this starts early in one’s life

PHYSICAL INFERIORITIES

• Whole human race is “blessed: with organ inferiorities

• Have little or no importance but if this become meaningful when 

• They stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority - it may lead towards imperfection or completion

ORGAN DIALECT

• The deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goals

CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS

• Unified personality is a function of harmony between conscious and unconscious processes aimed toward single goal

• a force that bonds society

• Gemeinschaftsgefühl - feeling of oneness with all humanity

ORIGINS

• Potentiality is found in everyone

• Found in mother-infant relationship

• Fostered by social environment

IMPORTANCE

• Measure of psychological health and maturity

• “The sole criterion of human values” and the “barometer of normality”

• Flavor of a person’s life

• Includes personal goal, self-concept, empathy, and attitude toward world

• Product of heredity, environment, and creative power

• Mostly set by 4 or 5 years of age

• Healthy individuals express this through action and struggle to solve problems of neighborly love, sexual love and occupation

• An inner freedom that empowers each person to create his or her own style of life

• Importance is not endowment but how one uses this power

• Places one in control of his or her life

• Responsible for one’s final goal

• Determines one’s method of striving

• Contributes to the development of one’s social interest

3 Safeguarding Tendencies:

1. Excuses

2. Aggression

3. Withdrawal

• Excuses

  • “Yes, but” - people first state what they claim they would like to do – something that is good to others – then they follow with an excuse

  • “If only” – the same excuse but phrased in a different way; these protect a weak – but artificially inflated – sense of self-worth and deceive people into believing that they are more superior than they are

• Aggression

  • people use this to safeguard their exaggerated superiority complex to protect their fragile self-esteem

  • 3 Forms:

1. Depreciation - undervalue other people’s achievement and overvalue one’s own.

2. Accusation - blame others for one’s failures and to seek revenge, protecting one’s own tenuous self-esteem.

3. Self-accusation - self-torture and guilt.

• Withdrawal

  • People run away from difficulties that can halt personality development

  • Safeguarding through distance

  • 4 Modes:

1. Moving backward - psychologically reverting to a more secure period of life

2. Standing still - people do not move in any direction; they avoid all responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure.

3. Hesitating - people vacillate when face difficult problems; procrastinating eventually gives them the excuse “It’s too late now.” - most compulsive behaviors are attempts to waste time.

4. Constructing obstacles - by overcoming the obstacle, they protect their self-esteem and their prestige; if they fail to hurdle the barrier, they can always resort to an excuse

• Masculine Protest - 

• Family Constellation

  • birth order, gender of their siblings, and the age between them

• Early Recollection

  • recalled memories yield clues in understanding one’s style of life.

• Dreams

  • are disguised to deceive the dreamer, making self-interpretation difficult.

• Psychotherapy

  • postulates that psychopathology results from lack of courage, exaggerated feelings of inferiority, and underdeveloped social interest.

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: July 26, 1875

• Birthplace: Kesswil, Lake Constance, Switzerland

• Death: June 6, 1961 - Zürich, Switzerland - few weeks before his 86th birthday

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• 1900 - Medical degree in Basel University

• Psychiatric assistant to Eugene Bleuler at Burghöltzli Mental Hospital in Zürich

• Teach psychiatry at University of Zürich

• 1906 - he become a steady correspondent of Freud; 1st president of Wednesday group

• 1913 - he ended his relationship with Freud

CHARACTERISTICS

• Believe in having 2 personalities (No. 1 and No. 2)

• Have several intimate relationships

• Experienced sexual assault

• Interests in alchemy, archeology, gnosticism mythology, Eastern philosophy, history, religion, and ethnology 

• Conscious - psychic images sensed by the ego

• Personal Unconscious - repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived experiences

• Collective Unconscious - ideas from the experiences inherited from our ancestors

Archetypes

• archaic images derived from the collective unconscious

• psychic counterpart of instincts

• Instincts - an unconscious physical impulse toward action

1. PERSONA

• the side of personality that people show to the world

• people must strike a balance between demands of society and what we truly are 

• to avoid blocking from attaining. self-realization, one must not identify to clearly to this

2. SHADOW

• the archetype of darkness and repression

• represents those qualities we do not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from ourselves and others

• we must continually strive to know our shadow - the first test of courage

3. ANIMA

• woman from within

• man’s feminine side

• irrational moods and feelings

4. ANIMUS

• man from within

• woman’s masculine side

• thinking and reasoning

• Both appears in dreams, visions, and fantasies in a personified form

5. GREAT MOTHER

• pre existing concept of mother

• is always associated with both

• positive and negative feelings

• represents 2 opposing forces: (1) fertility & nourishment and (2) power & destruction

6. WISE OLD MAN

• archetype of wisdom and meaning

• symbolizes humans’ preexisting knowledge of the mysteries of life

• unconscious and cannot be directly experienced by a single individual

• symbolized by life itself

7. HERO

• represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person

• sometimes part god—who fights against great odds to conquer or vanquish evil.

• model of ideal personality

8. SELF

• innate disposition wherein each person possesses an inherited tendency to move toward growth, perfection, and completion

• the archetype of archetypes—it pulls together the other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-realization

• symbolized the person’s ideas of perfection, completion, and wholeness; 

• ultimate symbol is the mandala - represents the striving of collective unconscious for unity, balance and wholeness

CAUSALITY & TELEOLOGY 

• behavior is shaped by both

PROGRESSION & REGRESSION

• Progression - forward flow of psychic energy necessary for adaptation of outside world

• Regression - backward flow of psychic energy necessary for adaptation to inner world

ATTITUDES

• predisposition to act in a characteristic direction

INTROVERSION

• the turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the objective

EXTRAVERSION

• the turning outward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the subjective

FUNCTIONS

• predisposition to act in a characteristic direction

1. THINKING

• logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas

2. FEELING

• evaluating an idea or event

3. SENSATION

• receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness

4. INTUITION

• perception beyond the workings of consciousness

1. CHILDHOOD

• anarchic - chaotic and sporadic consciousness; islands of

• consciousness

• monarchic - development of ego and by the beginning of logical and verbal thinking

• dualistic - ego is perceived—ego is divided into the objective and subjective

2. YOUTH

• The period from puberty until middle life

• Major difficulty to overcome is conservative principle or the tendency to cling to childhood

3. MIDDLE AGE

• Begins at approximately age 35 or 40

• Period of anxiety and potential

4. OLD AGE

• Diminution of consciousness

• Death is the goal of life

SELF-REALIZATION (INDIVIDUATION)

• Requires assimilation of unconsciousness into total self

• Process of integrating opposites into a harmonious self

• Rarely achieved

WORD ASSOCIATION

• In administering the test, Jung typically used a list of about 100 stimulus words chosen and arranged to elicit an emotional reaction. 

• He instructed the person to respond to each stimulus word with the first word that came to mind. 

• Jung recorded each verbal response, time taken to make a response, rate of breathing, and galvanic skin response.

• Usually, he would repeat the experiment to determine test-retest consistency.

DREAM ANALYSIS

• The purpose is to uncover elements from the personal and collective unconscious and to integrate them into consciousness in order to facilitate the process of self-realization.

• The Jungian therapist must realize that dreams are often compensatory; that is, feelings and attitudes not expressed during waking life will find an outlet through the dream process.

ACTIVE IMAGINATION

• This method requires a person to begin with any impression—a dream image, vision, picture, or fantasy—and to concentrate until the impression begins to “move.” 

• The person must follow these images to wherever they lead and then courageously face these autonomous images and freely communicate with them.

PSYCHOTHERAPY (4 STAGES)

1. Confession of a pathogenic secret

2. Interpretation, explanation, and elucidation

3. Education as social beings

4. Transformation

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: March 30, 1882

• Birthplace: Vienna, Austria

• Death: September 22, 1960 - London - colon cancer

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• Was deeply taken by Freud’s psychoanalysis and tried it to her children

• Psychoanalytic practice in Berlin after separation from husband

• Her work on psychoanalysis that focused on children was not honored either by Sigmund Freud nor Anna Freud

• Insulted by Melitta for all her works and as a mother

CHARACTERISTICS

• During marriage, she dreaded sex and abhorred pregnancy

PHANTASIES

• infants possess an active fantasy life

• most basic fantasies are of what is “good” and “bad” (e.g., good and bad breast)

OBJECTS

• drives have an object

• objects are introjected or taken into child’s fantasy world and have a life their own

PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION

• Organizing experiences in a way that includes both feelings of persecution and splitting of internal and external objects into the good and bad

DEPRESSIVE POSITION

• Anxiety over losing a loved object

• Sense of guilt for wanting to destroy loved object

INTROJECTION

• infants fantasize taking into their body those perceptions and experiences that they have had with the external object

• originally the mother’s breast

PROJECTION

• infants use this to get rid of both the good and the bad objects

• The fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses actually reside in another person and not within one’s body

SPLITTING

• infants develop a picture of both the “good me” and the “bad me” that enables them to deal with both pleasurable and destructive impulses toward external objects

PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION

• infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves

• project them into another object, 

• and finally introject them back into themselves in a changed or distorted form

• The person takes in (introjects) aspects of the external world and then organizes those introjections into a psychologically meaningful framework.

• Ego 

  • one’s sense of self

  • reaches maturity at a much earlier stage than Freud had assumed.

• Superego 

  • (1) emerges much earlier in life

  • (2) not outgrowth of the Oedipus complex

  • (3) much more harsh and cruel - produces inferiority and guilt

• Oedipus Complex

  • Male Oedipal Complex

  • Female Oedipal Complex

• Margaret Mahler

  • observed infant/mother interaction during first three years of infants’ lives

  • examined change from security to autonomy

  • children pass through a series of three major developmental stages:

1. Normal autism (birth through 3 - 4 weeks)

2. Normal symbiosis (4th week - 5th month)

3. Separation-individuation (5th - 36th months)

• Heinz Kohut

  • emphasized the process of development of the self

  • in caring for infants’ physical and psychological needs, adults or self-objects treat them as if they had sense of self

  • self is the “center of the individual’s psychological universe”

  • early self is characterized by two narcissistic needs:

1. To exhibit grandiose self

2. To acquire an idealized image of parent

• John Bowlby

  • tried to integrate with Evolutionary Theory

  • childhood was the starting point

  • by studying human and other primate infants, he observed three stages of separation anxiety:

1. Protest

2. Despair

3. Detachment

• Two fundamental assumptions:

1. Caregiver must create a secure base of child

2. Bonding relationship becomes internalized and acts model for future relationship

• Mary Ainsworth 

  • was influenced by Bowlby

  • developed Strange Situation Technique for measuring attachment style

  • Found three basic Attachment Styles:

1. Secure

2. Anxious-resistant

3. Anxious-avoidant

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: September 15, 1885

• Birthplace: Eilbek, Hamburg, Germany

• Death: December 4, 1952 - New York - cancer

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• 1906 - University of Freiburg and one of the 1st women in Germany to study medicine

• 1910 - began psychoanalysis with Karl Abraham

• 1932 - associate director to Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute

• Zodiac Group: Fromm, Fromm-Reichmann, Sullivan, and others

• 1950 - published book Neurosis and Human Growth

• 1952 - Karen Horney Psychoanalytic Institute and Karen Horney Clinic

CHARACTERISTICS

• Great hostility towards father and regarded him as a religious hypocrite

• Was not a happy child

• Idolized her mother

• Has intimate relationships with series of men

BASIC HOSTILITY

• arise when parents do not satisfy child’s needs for safety and satisfaction

BASIC ANXIETY

• repressed hostility leads to insecurity and apprehension

DEFENSES AGAINST BASIC ANXIETY

1. Affection - strategy that does not always lead to authentic love

2. Submissiveness - neurotics may submit themselves either to people or to institutions such as an organization or a religion.

3. Power - a defense against the real or imagines hostility of others and takes form of a tendency to dominate others

   1. Prestige - a protection against humiliation and is expressed as a tendency to humiliate others.

   2. Possession - acts as a buffer against destitution and poverty and manifests itself as a tendency to deprive others

4. Withdrawal - neurotics frequently protect themselves against basic anxiety either by developing an independence from others or by becoming emotionally detached from them

• The salient characteristics of all neurotic drives

• Neurotics Repeat Same Unproductive Strategy - arise when parents do not satisfy child’s needs for safety and satisfaction

NEUROTIC NEEDS

•  attempt to reduce basic anxiety

• 10 categories:

1. AFFECTION AND APPROVAL

• attempt to indiscriminately please others

2. POWERFUL PARTNER

• because of lack of self-confidence, neurotics try to attach themselves to this

• overvaluation of love and dread of being alone or deserted

3. RESTRICT ONE’S LIFE WITHIN NARROW BORDERS

• strive to remain inconspicuous, to take second place, and to be content with very little

• they downgrade their own abilities and dread making demands on others

4. POWER

• the need to control others and to avoid feelings of weakness or

• stupidity

5. EXPLOIT OTHERS

• frequently evaluate others on the basis of how they can be used or exploited

• at the same time, they fear being exploited

6. SOCIAL RECOGNITION OR PRESTIGE

• some people combat basic anxiety by trying to be first, to be important, or to attract attention to themselves

7. PERSONAL ADMIRATION

• need to be admired for what they are rather than for what they possess

• their inflated self-esteem must be continually fed by the admiration and approval of others

8. AMBITION AND PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT

• strong drive to be the best

• they must defeat other people in order to confirm their superiority

9. SELF-SUFFICIENCY AND INDEPENDENCE

• strong need to move away from people, providing that they can get along without others

10. PERFECTION AND UNASSAILABILITY

• they dread making mistakes and having personal flaws and desperately attempt to hide their weaknesses from others

NEUROTIC TRENDS

• three general categories to group the 10 neurotic needs

• each neurotic needs relating to a person’s basic attitudes

• neurotic trends solve basic conflict

MOVING TOWARD PEOPLE

• Neurotic need to protect oneself against feelings of helplessness

• Also called philosophy of life

• Willingness to subordinate themselves to others, to see others as more intelligent or attractive, and to rate themselves according to what others think of them

MOVING AGAINST PEOPLE

• Neurotically aggressive person appearing tough or ruthless 

• They are motivated by a strong need to exploit others and to use them for their own benefit

• Seldom admit their mistakes and compulsively driven to appear perfect, powerful and superior

MOVING AWAY FROM PEOPLE

• to solve the basic conflict of isolation, some people behave in a detached manner and adapt to this trend

• expression of needs for privacy, independence, and self-sufficiency

• use to attain autonomy and separateness

• Originate from interpersonal experiences

SELF-HATRED

• an interrelated yet equally irrational and powerful tendency to despise one’s real self

IDEALIZED SELF-IMAGE 

• is an attempt to solve conflicts by painting a godlike picture of oneself

• Includes 3 aspects:

1. NEUROTIC SEARCH FOR GLORY

• comprehensive drive toward actualizing the ideal self

• 3 elements:

1. the need for perfection - drive to mold the whole personality into the idealized self; “shoulds and should nots”; tyranny of the should

2. neurotic ambition - compulsive drive toward superiority

3. the drive toward a vindictive triumph - grows out of the childhood desire to take revenge for real or imagined

2. NEUROTIC CLAIMS

• in the search for glory, neurotics build a fantasy world - a world that is out sync with the real world

3. NEUROTIC PRIDE

• false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self but on a spurious image of the idealized self

• Psychological differences between men and women are due to culture and social expectations rather than to anatomy

• View of the Oedipus complex was that any sexual attraction or hostility of child to parent would be the result of learning and not biology

• Found the concept of “penis envy” untenable. If that existed, should also be “womb envy”

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: June 15, 1902

• Birthplace: Southern Germany

• Death: December 4, 1952 - New York - cancer

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• had no college degree

• gained world fame in psychoanalysis, anthropology, psychohistory, and education

• invited by friend Peter Blos to teach children in a new school in Vienna where he met Anna Freud, one of the school’s founders, and became Erikson’s employer and psychoanalyst

• Erikson established a modified psychoanalytic practice in Boston, USA

• research positions at Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and the Harvard Psychological Clinic

• worked as a therapist at Austen Riggs, a treatment center for psychoanalytic training and research in Stockbridge

CHARACTERISTICS

• background included art, extensive travels, experiences with a variety of cultures, and a lifelong search for his own identity

• continued to search for his own identity while seeking the name of his biological father

• Erikson regarded his post-Freudian theory as an extension of psychoanalysis.

EGO

• a positive force that creates a self-identity, a sense of "I". 

• The center of personality—helps adapt to various conflicts and crises of life and keeps people from losing their individuality to the leveling forces of society.

• a partially unconscious organizing agency; synthesizes present experiences with past self-identities and anticipated images of self

• Three aspects of ego:

1. BODY EGO

• experiences with the physical body and seeing the physical self as different from other people.

2. EGO IDEAL

• represents the image one has of themselves in comparison with an established ideal.

3. EGO IDENTITY

• image people have of themselves in the variety of social roles they play.

• Alterations in body ego, ego ideal, and ego identity can take place at any stage of life.

SOCIETY’S INFLUENCE

• The ego is shaped by society and culture, with different societies shaping personalities to fit their values

• societies develop a pseudospecies, an illusion of being the chosen human species

EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE

• The ego develops through life stages, each building on the previous one, like the step-by-step growth of fetal organs.

• Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle

• one component part arises out of another and has its own time of ascendancy, but it does not entirely replace earlier components.

• Ego identity is shaped by a multiplicity of conflicts and events—past, present, and anticipated.

• eight developmental stages transcend chronology and geography and are appropriate to nearly all cultures, past and present.

• Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis – conflict between a syntonic and  dystonic element stimulates the psychosocial crisis.

• basic strength – ego quality emerging from these conflicts, with an underlying antipathy that becomes the core pathology of that stage.

1. INFANCY

• Birth – 1 yr. old 

• Parallel to Freud’s oral phase

• Time of incorporation, with infants “taking in” not only through their mouth but through their various sense organs as well.

• Mode: oral-sensory psychosexual mode

• Psychosocial crisis: trust vs. mistrust

• Basic strength: hope

2. EARLY CHILDHOOD

• 2 – 3 or 4 yrs. old

• Young children develop a sense of control over their interpersonal environment, as well as a measure of self-control

• Mode: anal-urethral-muscular mode

• Psychosocial crisis: autonomy vs. shame and doubt

• Basic strength: will

3. PLAY AGE

• 3 – 5 yrs old

• Parallel to Freud’s phallic phase

• children's genital interests have a direction, with mother or father being the object of their sexual desires, they set goals and pursue them with purpose

• children are developing a conscience and begin to attach labels such as right and wrong to behavior

• Genital-locomotor 

• Psychosocial crisis: initiative vs. guilt

• Basic strength: purpose

4. SCHOOL AGE

• 6 – 12 or 13 yrs. old

• Parallel to Freud’s latency period

• The social world of children is expanding beyond family to include peers, teachers, and other adult models.

• Psychosexual latency

• Psychosocial crisis: industry vs. inferiority

• Basic strength: competence

5. ADOLESCENCE

• 13 – 18 yrs. old

• search for ego identity reaches a climax as young people strive to find out who they are and who they are not

• adolescents look for new roles to help them discover their identities

• Puberty

• Psychosocial crisis: identity vs. identity confusion

• Basic strength: fidelity

6. YOUNG ADULTHOOD

• 19 – 30 yrs. old

• young people begin to fuse their identity with that of another person

• Intimacy – ability to fuse one’s identity with that of another person without fear of losing it

• Isolation – inability to take chances with one’s identity by sharing true intimacy

• Psychosocial crisis: intimacy vs. isolation

• Basic strength: love

7. ADULTHOOD

• 31 – 60 yrs. old

• people begin to take their place in society and assume responsibility for whatever society produces

• Generativity – establishing and guiding the next generation and caring for offspring, products, and ideas

• Stagnation – self-absorption, pseudo intimacy, and a pervading sense of boredom

• Psychosocial crisis: generativity vs. stagnation

• Basic strength: care

8. OLD AGE

• 60 yrs. old – death

• a time for reflection, a time to either gain ego integrity or to yield to despair

• Integrity – a feeling of wholeness, coherence, and wisdom

• Despair – feeling of regret, the feeling that life has been incomplete and that it is now too late to start in a new direction.

• Maturity

• Psychosocial crisis: integrity vs. despair

• Basic strength: wisdom

ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES

• Erikson studied the Sioux and Yurok nations, finding that their child-rearing practices influenced personality traits.

PSYCHOHISTORY

• defined as the study of individual and collective life with the combined methods of psychoanalysis and history.

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: March 23, 1900

• Birthplace: Frankfurt, Germany

• Death: March 18, 1980 - Mexico - heart attack

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• Became interested with Freud’s psychoanalysis and Karl Marx about socialism

• 25 yr old: studies, psychology, philosophy, and sociology (PhD) at University of Heidelberg

• Lectures at Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute and private practice in New York City

CHARACTERISTICS

• Stated that he had very neurotic parents, making him as probably neurotic child

• Obsessed by the question of how war was possible

• Socialist

• A very private person

• Authoritarian, gentle, pretentious, arrogant, pious, autocratic, shy, sincere, phony, and brilliant

RELATEDNESS

• drive for union with another person(s)

• 3 basic ways to relate to world:

1. Submission 

2. Power

3. Love (The Art of Loving - 1956) 4 basic elements: care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge

TRANSCENDENCE

• urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into “the realm of purposefulness and freedom”

• Humans use Malignant Aggression - to kill for reasons other than survival

ROOTEDNESS

• the need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the world

SENSE OF IDENTITY

• the capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity

FRAME OF ORIENTATION

• being split off from nature, humans need a road map to make their way through the world

• People attempt to escape from freedom in a variety of ways

POSITIVE FREEDOM

• spontaneous and full expression of both rational and emotional potentialities

• achieved when a person becomes reunified with others and with the world

MECHANISMS OF ESCAPE

1. AUTHORITARIANISM 

• tendency to give up independence of one’s own individual self and to fire one’s self with somebody or something outside oneself, in order to acquire the strength which the individual is lacking

• Aimed at reducing basic anxiety through achieving unity with another person

  • Masochism: results from basic feelings of powerlessness, weakness, and inferiority

  • Sadism: more neurotic and more socially harmful;

1. The need to make others dependent on oneself and gain power over those who are weak

2. Compulsion to exploit others

3. Desire to see others suffer, physically or psychologically

2. DESTRUCTIVENESS

• rooted in the feelings of aloneness, isolation and powerlessness

• It seeks to do away with other people

3. CONFORMITY

• people who conform try to escape from a sense of aloneness and isolation by giving up their individuality and becoming whatever other people desire them to be

• They become robots, reacting predictably and mechanically to the whims of others.

• They seldom express their own opinion, cling to expected standards of behavior, and often appear stiff and automated 

• the person’s relatively permanent way of relating to people and things

PERSONALITY

• the totality of inherited and acquired psychic qualities which are characteristic of one individual and which make the individual unique

CHARACTER

• the most important of the acquired qualities of personalities

• relatively permanent system of all non-instinctual striving through which man relates himself to the human and natural world

• the substitute for lack of instincts

People relate to the world in 2 ways:

1. Assimilation: by acquiring and using things

2. Socialization: by relating to self and others

General ways to relate: either Nonproductive or productive

NONPRODUCTIVE ORIENTATIONS

• strategies that fail to move people closer to positive freedom and self-realization

Characteristics:

1. RECEPTIVE

• receiving things passively

2. EXPLOITATIVE

• taking things through force

3. HOARDING

• seek to save that which they have already obtained

4. MARKETING

• exchanging things

PRODUCTIVE ORIENTATIONS

• work towards positive freedom and a continuing realization of their potential - they are the most healthy of all character types

• only through this people solve the basic human dilemma: to unite with the world and with others while retaining uniqueness and individuality

Characteristics:

1. WORKING

   • They value work not as end in itself, but as a means of creative self-expression

2. LOVING

   • 4 qualities: care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge

   • Biophilia: a passionate love of life and all that is alive

3. REASONING

   • motivated by a concerned interest in another person or object

• disturbed individuals are incapable of love and fail to establish union with others

1. NECROPHILIA

•  focus of attention is death and entails a hatred of humanity

2. MALIGNANT NARCISSISM 

• belief that everything one owns is of great value 

• anything belonging to others is worthless

3. INCESTUOUS SYMBIOSIS 

• extreme dependence on one’s mother to the extent that one’s personality is bonded with that of the host person

• exaggerated form of mother fixation

BASIC INFORMATION

• Birthdate: February 21, 1892

• Birthplace: Norwich, New York

• Death: 1949 - Paris - died alone

EDUCATION & PRACTICES

• valedictorian

• Cornell University - but left after suffered schizophrenic breakdown since being picked up by older students at school

• 1917 - graduated medicine at Chicago College of Medicine

• Ability to work with schizophrenics won him reputation as a “clinical wizard”

• 1930 - open private practice, where he met Horney, Fromm and others

CHARACTERISTICS

• preschool child: had neither friends nor acquaintances of his age

• He felt an outsider at school

• 8 yrs. old: had a 13 yr. old friend - Clarence Bellinger - they are both socially retarded but advanced intellectually

• More interested in books than farming; absentmindedly forgetting farm hard work

• is a potentiality for action that may or may not be experienced in awareness 

NEEDS 

• tensions brought on by biological imbalance between a person and the environment

• Tenderness is most basic interpersonal need

• Can related either to the general well-being of a person (general needs) or to specific zones (zonal needs)

• Can be either physiological or interpersonal

ANXIETY 

• tensions that is disjunctive, diffuse and vague

• All infants learn to be anxious through the empathic relationship they have with their parents

• A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria

ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

• tensions transformed into overt or covert actions

• typical behavior patterns that characterize a person throughout a lifetime

MALEVOLENCE

•  feeling of living among one’s enemies

INTIMACY

• need for tenderness

• involves a close personal relationship between two people of equal status

LUST

• isolating tendency, based solely on sexual gratification

• requires no other person for its satisfaction

SELF-SYSTEM

• consistent pattern of behaviors that protects people against anxiety 

• maintains their interpersonal security

• the images that people acquire of themselves and others

BAD-MOTHER, GOOD MOTHER

• similar to Klein’s concept of the bad breast and good breast

• bad-mother personification

  • When the nipple does not satisfy hunger needs—does not matter whether the nipple belongs to the mother or from a baby bottle

  • Not an accurate image of the “real” mother but merely the infant’s vague representation of not being properly fed

• good mother personification

  • acquired after the bad mother personification

  • based on the tender and cooperative behaviors of the mothering one

• These two personifications combine to form a complex personification of contrasting qualities projected onto the same person. It can coexist if the infant has not yet developed language.

ME PERSONIFICATIONS

• Three personifications that form the building blocks of self personification

• each is related to the evolving conception of me or my body

1. BAD ME

• from experiences of punishment and disapproval that infants receive from their mothering one

• shaped out of the interpersonal  situation; that is, infants can learn that they are bad only from someone else, ordinarily the bad-mother.

2. GOOD ME

• from infants’ experiences with reward and approval, causing them to feel good about themselves

• Such experiences diminish anxiety and foster the good-me personification

3. NOT ME

• Caused by sudden severe anxiety—either dissociate or selectively inattend experiences related to that anxiety

• An infant denies these experiences to the me image, becoming a part of not-me personification

• encountered by adults and are expressed in dreams, schizophrenic episodes, and other dissociated reactions

EIDETIC PERSONIFICATIONS

• imaginary traits that people project onto others

• ways of perceiving, imagining, and conceiving

PROTOTAXIC LEVEL

• earliest experience that are possible to put into words or to communicate to others

PARATAXIC LEVEL

• experiences that are prelogical and result when illusory correlation is assumed

SYNTAXIC LEVEL

• experiences that are consensual validated and can be accurately communicated to others

• thread of interpersonal relations runs throughout the stages

INFANCY

• ages birth to 2

• Infant’s primary interpersonal relationship is with the mother

CHILDHOOD

• ages 2 to 6

• Mother continues as primary interpersonal relationship, although children of this age often have an imaginary friend

JUVENILE ERA 

• ages 6 to 8 1/2

• characterized by a need for peers and  playmates, and ends when one finds a chum

• Children should learn the skills at this stage that will enable them to move through the later stages of development

PREADOLESCENCE

• ages 8 1/2 to 13

• characterized by intimacy with one (usually same sex) person

• Genesis of the capacity to love

EARLY ADOLESCENCE

• ages 13 to 15

• genital interest erupts and lustful relationships appear

• Intimacy and lust exist as parallel but separate needs

LATE ADOLESCENCE

• age 15 onwards

• intimacy and lust are experienced in the same person

ADULTHOOD

• successful completion of late adolescence culminates in adulthood

• Marked by a stable love relationship

• All psychological disorders have an interpersonal origin and must be understood with reference to social environment

• Deficiencies found in psychiatric patients are found in every person to a lesser degree

• Psychological difficulties are not unique, but come from same interpersonal difficulties we all face

• 2 broad classes of schizophrenia:

1. Organic factors - beyond the study of interpersonal psychiatry

2. Situational factors - amenable to change through interpersonal psychiatry; only concern of Sullivan