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Complete Study Guide: Western Culture, Jews, Greeks, Rome, and the Middle Ages

Topics 1-5: Introduction, Jews, and Greeks

Western Culture: Where/What/Why; Patriotism

• Western Culture: The roots of modern Western civilization, including ideas, values, art, and politics, shaped primarily by Ancient Greece, Rome, and Judeo-Christian beliefs.

• Where: Originated in Ancient Greece and Rome, influencing Europe and the Americas.

• What: Includes ideas of democracy, law, philosophy, arts, and Christianity.

• Why: Essential for understanding modern Western society.

• Patriotism: In classical Greece and Rome, patriotism was linked to civic duty, participation in public life, and the defense of one's city-state or empire.

Abraham – Father of Faith

• Key Concept: Father of the Hebrew people and the founder of the covenant between God and the Jewish people.

• Significance: His faith laid the foundation for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

• Genesis 12-17: God promises Abraham land, descendants, and blessings.

Moses – Law & Covenant

• Moses: Leader of the Exodus, the journey of the Israelites from Egypt to the Promised Land.

• Ten Commandments: A moral code given by God.

• Covenant: The agreement that Israel would be God’s chosen people, and they must follow His law (Torah).

God’s People – King David

• King David: A central figure in Jewish history.

• Established Jerusalem as the capital and brought the Ark of the Covenant there.

• Known for psalms (many written by him) and establishing the Davidic Covenant, which promises a future Messiah from his lineage.

Jewish Legacy

• Psalm 51: A psalm of repentance and seeking God’s forgiveness.

• Psalm 139: Describes God’s omniscience and the intimate relationship between God and individuals.

• God, Law, Covenant: The core of Jewish beliefs - One God, adherence to His Law, and the ongoing covenant relationship.

Jews and Christians: The Parting of Ways

• Destruction of the Second Temple (70 AD): Marks the point where Judaism and Christianity officially diverged.

• Jews: Focused on following the Law, waiting for the Messiah.

• Christians: Believed that Jesus was the Messiah, and faith in him was the way to salvation.

Greek Philosophy

Greek Philosophy: Definition & Origins

• Greek Philosophy: The study of fundamental questions regarding existence, knowledge, ethics, and reason.

• Origins: Began in Ancient Greece, starting with Pre-Socratic philosophers (e.g., Thales, Pythagoras, Heraclitus) who sought natural explanations for the world.

Socrates

• Philosophical Approach: Focused on ethics and the pursuit of virtue.

• Method: Developed the Socratic method—asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and expose contradictions.

• Legacy: Influenced Plato and Western ethical thought.

• Death: Executed for “corrupting the youth” and questioning Athenian beliefs.

Plato

• Key Ideas: The Theory of Forms—suggests that the physical world is a mere shadow of a higher, eternal, and unchangeable reality.

• The Ideal State: In his work, The Republic, Plato describes a just society led by philosopher-kings.

• The Soul: Immortal, composed of three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite.

• Legacy: Founded the Academy, one of the first institutions of higher learning.

Aristotle

• Key Ideas: Focused on empirical observation and logical reasoning.

• The Four Causes: He introduced the concept that everything has four causes—material, formal, efficient, and final.

• Ethics: Emphasized the Golden Mean—the idea that virtue lies between two extremes (e.g., courage between cowardice and recklessness).

• Legacy: His work laid the foundation for Western science and ethics.

Key Texts and Readings

Plato, Phaedo

• Immortality of the Soul: Plato discusses the nature of the soul, which exists before and after the body.

• Key Theme: The soul’s eternal existence and the importance of philosophical understanding for true knowledge.

Plato, Republic (pp. 18-31)

• Justice: The nature of justice and how it can be achieved in society.

• The Ideal State: Describes a society led by philosopher-kings, organized into classes: rulers, warriors, and producers.

• Philosophy and Politics: Philosophy helps create a just society by aligning the soul with reason and virtue.

Greek Happiness (Eudaimonia)

• Definition: Flourishing through the pursuit of virtue and living in accordance with reason.

• Path of Virtue: The way to happiness is through developing moral excellence.

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics – Friendship

• Types of Friendships:

  • Friendships of utility, pleasure, and virtue.

  • Friendship of virtue: The highest form of friendship, based on mutual respect and shared moral goodness.

Topics 6-8: Rome

Greek Culture, Macedonians, and Romans

• Macedonian Influence: Under Alexander the Great, Greek culture spread across the known world.

• Romans: While influenced by Greek culture, they were more focused on law, military conquest, and government.

Centric/Eccentric Cultures (Brague’s General Idea)

• Centric Cultures: Cultures that see themselves as the center of the world (e.g., Rome, China).

• Eccentric Cultures: Cultures that adopt and adapt external influences, rather than seeing themselves as the center(e.g., Europe after the fall of Rome).

Roman Government

Rome - Monarchy

• Monarchy (753–509 BC): Rome began as a monarchy, with kings ruling the city-state.

Rome - Republic

• Republic (509–27 BC): Power was held by the Senate, consuls, and assemblies.

• Key Features: Roman citizens elected leaders and representatives, and had the right to participate in public affairs.

Rome – Empire

• How Rome Became an Empire: The rise of Octavian (Augustus) after the fall of the Republic marked the beginning of the Roman Empire.

• Empire: Concentrated power in the hands of the emperor.

Republic and Empire Compared (In Theory)

• Republic: Power shared among the people, with elected officials representing their interests.

• Empire: Power centralized in one ruler, often leading to autocratic rule.

Pax Romana (30 BC – 180 AD)

• A period of relative peace and stability within the Roman Empire.

• Roman law, trade, and culture flourished during this time.

Stoicism

Stoicism (In General)

• Philosophy of Control: Focused on achieving happiness by aligning oneself with the universe’s natural order.

• Key Principle: Virtue is the only true good, and external events cannot harm the virtuous.

World-Soul

• Stoic belief that the universe is governed by a rational soul that connects all things.

Stoic Way to Happiness

• Acceptance of Fate: Happiness comes from internal peace, not external circumstances.

• Living According to Nature: Embrace rationality and virtue in all actions.

Stoicism and Christianity Compared

• Both emphasize self-control and acceptance of suffering, but Christianity also focuses on grace and the hope of eternal life.

Epictetus, Handbook

• Stoic Teachings: Epictetus emphasized self-discipline, endurance, and focusing only on what is within one’s control.

Seneca

• Philosopher and advisor to Emperor Nero.

• Advocated for mental tranquility, moral independence, and overcoming passion.

Seneca, Of Peace of Mind

• Achieving Tranquility: How to live a life of inner peace by controlling desires and emotions.

Decline of the Roman Empire

• Where/When: The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD.

• Causes:

  • Political instability, economic collapse, military weakness, and invasions by barbarians.

The Roman Empire and Christianity

Tetrarchy, Great Persecution

• Tetrarchy: Division of the Roman Empire into four regions.

• Great Persecution (303 AD): Emperor Diocletian attempted to eradicate Christianity.

Constantine and the Toleration of Christianity

• Constantine: First Roman emperor to tolerate Christianity.

• Edict of Milan (313 AD): Officially legalized Christianity.

Edict of Milan (Reading)

• Legalized Christianity and ended persecution.

Why Did Christianity Spread?

• Appeal to the marginalized, promise of eternal life, and the missionary zeal of early Christians.

Lord’s Day and Eucharist (WCI, pp. 13-14)

• Lord’s Day: Sunday, the day Christians celebrated the resurrection of Jesus.

• Eucharist: The Christian practice of commemorating the Last Supper of Jesus.

St. Augustine, Confessions (Reading)

• Personal Journey: Augustine’s spiritual transformation from sin to faith.

• Focus on grace, salvation, and the nature of God.

Topics 9-10: Middle Ages – Successors to Rome

Byzantine Empire

• Key Features: The Eastern Roman Empire preserved Roman law, culture, and Christianity.

• Legacy: The Byzantine Empire influenced the Orthodox Church and the spread of Christianity.

Muhammad’s World

• Founder of Islam: Born in 570 AD, Muhammad received revelations from Allah and spread Islam.

• The Quran: The holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God.

Islamic Empire: Three Capitals

• Mecca, Medina, and Baghdad were the key centers of the Islamic Empire.

Islamic Empire: Muslim Rule

• Muslims ruled vast territories, making significant advancements in science, mathematics, and medicine.

Muslim Civilization: Culture/Religion

• Achievements: Preserved and expanded upon Greek and Roman learning. Contributions in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and philosophy.