Untitled Flashcards Set

Key Historical Contexts and Themes:

1. Transition from Rural to Urban Economy:

• KC-7.1.I: The U.S. transitioned from a rural, agricultural economy to an urban, industrial economy, especially after the 19th century, driven by large corporations like Ford, General Motors, and Standard Oil. This shift was marked by industrial growth in cities and a decline in rural agricultural jobs.
  
  

• KC-7.1.I.C:
  
  

  • The early 20th century saw episodes of credit and market instability, culminating in the Great Depression (1929). The stock market crash led to widespread unemployment, bank failures, and a lack of consumer confidence. These events sparked calls for a more regulated financial system to prevent future economic crises.

2. Response to the Great Depression:

• KC-7.1.III:

  • Policymakers' Response: In the 1930s, policymakers sought to address mass unemployment and social upheaval. The government became more involved in economic recovery, transforming the U.S. into a limited welfare state. This new direction redefined American liberalism, with an increased role for the federal government in managing the economy and providing safety nets for citizens.
    
    

  • KC-7.1.III.A:
    
    

    • The New Deal (1933-1939), led by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was an attempt to end the Great Depression. It involved:

      • Relief Programs: Immediate aid to the poor and unemployed, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration (WPA).

      • Recovery Programs: Aimed to stimulate economic recovery, like the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and Public Works Administration (PWA).

      • Reform Programs: Permanent economic reforms like Social Security and Glass-Steagall Act (which created the FDIC to insure bank deposits).

  • KC-7.1.III.B:
    
    

    • Support and Pressure for Expansion:

      • Radicals: Figures like Huey Long and Father Charles Coughlin wanted more aggressive redistribution of wealth, pushing for changes beyond Roosevelt’s New Deal.

      • Unions and Populists: Pushed for labor reforms and more government involvement in economic planning.

      • Opposition from Conservatives: Many in Congress and the Supreme Court, especially those from the Republican Party, felt the New Deal was too socialist and violated the principles of limited government.

      • Supreme Court Challenges: In 1935-1936, the Supreme Court struck down several key New Deal programs, like the NIRA and the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act).

  • KC-7.1.III.C:
    
    

    • Long-Term Impact: Though the New Deal didn’t end the Great Depression, it created lasting reforms:

      • Regulatory Agencies: Agencies like the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and Federal Communications Commission (FCC) were established.

      • Political Realignment: Many ethnic groups, African Americans, and working-class Americans shifted political allegiance to the Democratic Party, seeing them as the party of reform and relief.

3. World War II and Migration:

• KC-7.2.II.B.ii: The increased demand for war production during WWII (1939-1945) and the continuing economic struggles of the 1930s led to significant migration to urban centers. People moved from rural areas to cities in search of jobs in defense industries like aircraft and shipbuilding, which grew rapidly during the war.

Underlying Causes of U.S. Neutrality Before WWII:

• Isolationist Sentiment:

  • Post-WWI Disillusionment: Many Americans were disillusioned after World War I, especially soldiers and individuals who felt the war was senseless. They wanted to avoid entanglement in foreign conflicts again.

  • Neutrality Acts (1935-1939): Series of laws passed by Congress aimed to avoid the mistakes of WWI by:

    • Prohibiting arms sales and loans to countries at war.

    • Imposing restrictions on U.S. citizens traveling on ships of warring nations.

  • Focus on Great Depression Recovery: The U.S. was focused on economic recovery from the Great Depression. Many Americans believed that foreign wars would only distract from solving domestic problems.

Direct Causes of U.S. Entry into WWII:

• Pearl Harbor Attack (December 7, 1941):

  • Japan’s surprise attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii led to the U.S. declaring war on Japan, marking the end of American neutrality.

  • The attack galvanized public opinion in favor of entering WWII, leading to declarations of war against both Japan and, shortly thereafter, Germany and Italy.

Short-Term Effects:

• New Deal:

  • Immediate Relief: Programs like the CCC and WPA provided jobs and infrastructure projects, alleviating immediate suffering.

  • Bank Stabilization: The FDIC insured bank deposits, restoring trust in the banking system.

  • Economic Recovery: Government spending on public works (such as bridges, schools, and roads) boosted the economy.

• WWII Entry:

  • Economic Boom: The demand for military goods and war supplies created jobs and ended the Great Depression. The U.S. economy transitioned from depression to a wartime economy, with industries like manufacturing and textiles booming.

  • Military Production: The U.S. ramped up production of weapons, ships, and planes, supplying not only its military but also its allies.

Long-Term Effects:

• New Deal:

  • Permanent Safety Nets: Programs like Social Security, unemployment insurance, and labor protections (e.g., National Labor Relations Act) remained in place.

  • Regulation: The federal government’s role in regulating the economy increased, with agencies like the SEC and Federal Reserve overseeing financial markets.

• WWII Entry:

  • Transformation of U.S. Military and Economy: The U.S. became a global military superpower, with a booming economy driven by wartime production. The war also catalyzed the growth of the military-industrial complex.

  • Social Changes:

    • Women in the Workforce: Women entered the workforce in large numbers, particularly in defense industries, marking a permanent shift in gender roles.

    • Minorities: African Americans and other minorities also gained new job opportunities in wartime industries but faced racial segregation and discrimination.

    • Japanese American Internment: Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated and interned in camps due to fears of espionage, a violation of civil liberties.

Support & Opposition to the New Deal:

• Support:

  • Unions: Supported the New Deal’s labor reforms, such as the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act), which protected the rights of workers to unionize.

  • Ethnic Minorities & African Americans: Benefited from social safety nets, labor protections, and relief programs.

  • Progressive Politicians: Strongly backed Roosevelt’s reforms, advocating for more government intervention in the economy.

• Opposition:

  • Conservatives: Criticized the New Deal for overreaching federal power and its intervention in private enterprise.

  • Supreme Court: Struck down key New Deal legislation, leading to Roosevelt’s Court-packing plan (which was unsuccessful).

  • Radicals: Figures like Huey Long and Francis Townsend called for more radical wealth redistribution, challenging Roosevelt’s approach as insufficient.

To What Extent Was America Neutral on the Eve of WWII?

• Neutrality:

  • Isolationist Policies: The U.S. maintained a stance of neutrality throughout the 1930s, despite rising global tensions and the aggression of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

  • Neutrality Acts: Laws were designed to avoid U.S. involvement in foreign conflicts and to prevent the country from repeating its WWI experience.

  • Opposition to Intervention: Many Americans opposed military action, with the majority only reluctantly supporting involvement after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

U.S. Mobilization During WWII:

• Mass Mobilization:

  • The U.S. industrial base was rapidly retooled for war production, helping to supply both U.S. forces and its allies.

  • Women & Minorities: Women joined the workforce in unprecedented numbers, especially in industries like aircraft and shipbuilding. African Americans moved to urban areas for war-related jobs, which helped to challenge segregation in the workplace.

  • Racial Segregation & Civil Liberties: Issues like Japanese American internment raised concerns about civil liberties during wartime, while debates over racial segregation in the military continued.

1. Migration to the U.S. from Mexico and the Western Hemisphere (KC-7.2.II.D)

• Bracero Program:
  
  

  • This program, which began in 1942, was an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico to allow Mexican laborers to work on American farms and railroads. Despite labor shortages in the U.S. during WWII, government policies were contradictory, often resulting in restrictions and deportations alongside encouragement to fill labor gaps.

  • The program brought over over 4.5 million Mexican workers to the U.S. between 1942 and 1964.

• Contradictory Policies:
  
  

  • In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. simultaneously promoted and restricted Mexican immigration. For example, during WWII, despite encouraging immigration for labor needs, the U.S. also witnessed the "repatriation" movement, where Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported due to xenophobic fears.

2. Social and Cultural Changes on the Home Front (KC-7.3.III.A, KC-7.3.III.C.ii)

• War as a Fight for Freedom:
  
  

  • The U.S. government framed the war as a struggle to defend democracy and freedom against fascist regimes. This rhetoric was especially reinforced by atrocities revealed after the war, such as Nazi concentration camps and Japanese war crimes like the Nanjing Massacre.

  • The shock of these revelations bolstered support for the war, portraying it as a moral crusade against totalitarianism.

• Women in the Workforce:
  
  

  • During WWII, women's participation in the workforce skyrocketed. By 1944, about 36% of women were employed, up from 25% before the war.

  • The Rosie the Riveter campaign symbolized this shift, with women taking on jobs in factories, shipyards, and other traditionally male-dominated industries. These positions included working as welders, mechanics, and engineers to support the war effort.

  • The U.S. government produced posters and advertisements to encourage women to work in industrial jobs, emphasizing their role in "winning the war."

• Minority Rights and Opportunities:
  
  

  • African Americans: The war created new opportunities in industrial jobs, especially in defense production. However, racial discrimination persisted, leading to actions like the March on Washington in 1941, organized by A. Philip Randolph to protest racial segregation in defense industries.

  • Executive Order 8802: Signed by President Roosevelt in 1941, this order prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry and established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC).

  • Hispanic Americans: Many Mexican Americans found employment in agriculture and defense industries during the war. However, they also faced discrimination and segregation.

  • Japanese Americans: About 120,000 Japanese Americans, most of them U.S. citizens, were interned in camps under Executive Order 9066 due to wartime fears of espionage and sabotage. This led to long-lasting debates over civil liberties.

3. Technological and Military Advancements (KC-7.3.III.D)

• Manhattan Project:
  
  

  • One of the most significant technological achievements was the development of the atomic bomb under the Manhattan Project. The project, led by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, culminated in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, which directly led to Japan’s surrender.

  • The U.S. also made strides in other military technologies, including radar, jet engines, and computer advancements in cryptography that played vital roles in the war effort.

• Island-Hopping Strategy:
  
  

  • The U.S. used an island-hopping strategy in the Pacific Theater to gradually capture strategic islands, bypassing heavily fortified ones to weaken Japan's defenses. This strategy led to major victories like the Battle of Midway and Iwo Jima, eventually allowing the U.S. to launch attacks on the Japanese mainland.

• D-Day Invasion:
  
  

  • On June 6, 1944, the Allied forces, including U.S. troops, launched the largest amphibious invasion in history on the beaches of Normandy, France. This invasion was a turning point in WWII, leading to the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.

4. U.S. Victory in WWII and Postwar Power (KC-7.3.III.E)

• Economic and Industrial Mobilization:
  
  

  • Industrial output increased dramatically during the war. The U.S. produced ships, planes, tanks, and munitions at unprecedented rates. The Lend-Lease Act allowed the U.S. to send massive amounts of military supplies to Allied nations, further solidifying its role as the "Arsenal of Democracy."

  • This mobilization effectively ended the Great Depression as millions of Americans were employed in defense industries and military service.

• Postwar Superpower Status:
  
  

  • After the war, the U.S. emerged as the world’s dominant superpower, both economically and militarily. The U.S. was responsible for much of the postwar recovery and the Marshall Plan, which helped rebuild war-torn Europe.

  • The U.S. also became a founding member of the United Nations, taking a leadership role in global governance and security.

Causes of U.S. Victory in WWII

• Military Factors:
  
  

  • The cooperation among the Allied powers, including joint military strategies and the sharing of resources, was pivotal.

  • Technological advances such as the atomic bomb, radar, and code-breaking were crucial in defeating Axis powers.

• Non-Military Factors:
  
  

  • The economic mobilization of the U.S., including the transition to war production and the creation of war-related jobs, was a key factor in the U.S. victory.

  • The home front supported the war effort through rationing, purchasing war bonds, and labor force participation.

Similarities and Differences Between WWII Conferences

Similarities:

• All conferences (e.g., Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam) focused on cooperation between the U.S., Soviet Union, and U.K. to ensure military victory and postwar peace.

• They all aimed to reshape the global order, including the division of Germany and the establishment of international institutions like the United Nations.

Differences:

• Tehran Conference (1943): First time Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met, focusing mainly on military strategies, especially the planning for D-Day.

• Yalta Conference (1945): Occurred towards the end of the war; focused on dividing Germany into zones of occupation and discussing Soviet influence in Eastern Europe.

• Potsdam Conference (1945): Held after Germany’s defeat, with growing tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The decision to use the atomic bomb was made here, and differences over postwar Europe began to emerge.