Psychology of Women – exam 2

1. Background on Women's Sexuality

Theoretical Perspectives on Sexuality

• Biases in Research and Theory

  • Androcentric emphasis: Focuses primarily on male perspectives.

  • Heterosexist bias: Assumes heterosexuality as the norm.

  • Biological framework: Explains sexuality through biological processes.

  • Essentialism: Suggests sexuality is innate and universal.

• Social Constructionism

  • Views sexuality as shaped by cultural and social influences.

  • Challenges biological determinism.

2. Female Sexual Anatomy

• Mons veneris – Fatty tissue covering the pubic bone; provides cushioning.

• Prepuce (Clitoral Hood) – Protects the clitoris from overstimulation.

• Clitoris – Highly sensitive organ with ~8,000 nerve endings, more than the penis.

• Labia Majora – Outer lips of the vulva; contain sweat and oil glands.

• Labia Minora – Inner lips; protect the vagina, urethra, and clitoris.

• Perineum – Skin between the vulva and anus; sensitive, may tear during childbirth.

• Vagina – Canal connecting external genitals to the cervix; serves reproductive and sexual functions.

3. Sexual Responses

• Masters & Johnson’s Four-Phase Model

  • Excitement Phase: Increased blood flow (vasocongestion), lubrication begins.

  • Plateau Phase: Heightened arousal, muscle tension.

  • Orgasmic Phase: Rhythmic contractions, peak of pleasure.

  • Resolution Phase: Return to baseline state, relaxation.

• Gender Comparisons in Sexual Responses

  • Men and women experience similar phases and psychological reactions.

  • Women can reach orgasm as quickly as men with direct clitoral stimulation.

  • Women are more likely to experience multiple orgasms.

  • Differences influenced by external factors (e.g., culture, personal experience).

4. Sexual Desire

• Influencing Factors:

  • Hormones: Estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone impact libido.

  • Social factors: Media, relationships, upbringing.

  • Cultural factors: Norms, taboos, and societal expectations.

5. Sexual Attitudes and Behavior

Attitudes About Female and Male Sexuality

• Nonmarital intercourse: Men generally hold more permissive attitudes than women.

• Sexual double standard: Different expectations for men and women.

• Cultural differences: Sexual norms vary across societies.

Sexual Scripts

• Traditional roles: Men as initiators, women as passive participants.

• Varying the script: Changing gender roles in sexual dynamics.

• Violating the script: Seen in contexts like horror films and rape culture.

Sex Education

• Parents and Sex Education

  • Mothers typically provide "the talk."

  • Certain topics are avoided.

  • Mixed messages about sexuality.

  • Ethnic differences in discussions about sex.

• Schools and Sex Education

  • Traditional approaches:

    • "Organ recital" – Focuses only on anatomy.

    • "Just say no" – Abstinence-only messaging.

  • Comprehensive Model:

    • Covers information, values, and emotional aspects.

    • Encourages informed choices and contraceptive use.

    • Leads to delayed sexual activity and lower pregnancy rates among teenagers.

    • Supported by most parents.

• The Media and Sexuality

  • Magazines promote narrow sexual scripts.

  • Media presents mixed messages about sexuality.

  • Many portrayals are unrealistic or misleading.

Key Takeaways for Exam Preparation

• Understand biases and attitudes surrounding sexuality.

• Recognize traditional sexual scripts and their variations.

• Know the different approaches to sex education and their impacts.

• Be aware of how media influences sexual attitudes and behaviors.

Relationships

1. Friendship

• Friendships become less sex-segregated in adolescence.

• Both girls' and boys' friendships are based on:

  • Honesty

  • Straightforwardness

  • Activities

  • Loyalty

Gender Differences in Friendship

• Girls' Friendships:

  • Focus on talking and self-disclosure.

  • Discussions often center around self and other people.

• Boys' Friendships:

  • Center around common activities.

  • Talk more about sports and leisure activities.

2. Adolescent Dating

• Follows heterosexual, gendered scripts.

• Involves strong emotions: love, jealousy, anger, anxiety.

• Helps shape gender identity and sexual orientation.

• Power differentials:

  • Girls are more invested in maintaining relationships.

  • Boys typically act as decision-makers.

Sexual Harassment

• Begins occurring during adolescence.

• Can include verbal, non-verbal, or physical contact.

• Examples: unwanted touching, comments, jokes, rumors, sexual emails or pictures.

• About half of students experience sexual harassment across socioeconomic and ethnic groups.

• Girls experience more harassment but engage in it less.

• Non-heterosexuals are disproportionately targeted.

• Victims suffer emotional and psychological distress.

3. Body Image and Societal Expectations

• Girls are valued for appearance, start grooming at 10-12 years.

• Boys are valued for athletic ability.

• Body Dissatisfaction:

  • More common among girls than boys.

  • Begins in late elementary school.

  • “Normative discontent” – body dissatisfaction is widespread.

  • By age 11, 1/3 of girls have dieted; by age 15, 3/4 have dieted.

  • Can lead to risky behaviors: extreme dieting, surgery, eating disorders.

  • "Fat talk" perpetuates body dissatisfaction.

  • Black communities foster better body image:

    • 60% of Black girls are proud of their bodies vs.

    • 38% of White, 45% of Latinx, and 50% of Asian girls.

  • True for cisgender, trans, and non-binary individuals.

4. Romantic Relationships

Factors Influencing Partner Selection

• Young adolescents focus on physical attractiveness.

• Older adolescents prioritize compatibility.

• Women are more satisfied in relationships with partners low in traditionally male traits (less macho, more kind and supportive).

Gender Differences in Partner Preferences

• Both men and women value physical attractiveness.

• Men are more likely to emphasize attractiveness in personal ads.

• Women are more likely to consider financial status in partner selection.

• Across cultures, financial stability is a key factor for women.

5. Marriage and Cohabitation

Marriage Preferences

• Both men and women seek honesty, trustworthiness, intelligence, and good personality in partners.

• Women prioritize sensitivity and attentiveness.

• Men still value attractiveness and health.

Cultural Differences in Marriage

• In non-Western cultures, marriage for love is less common.

• Arranged marriages still exist, sometimes through family matchmaking.

• Women value education and financial stability in a partner.

• Men prioritize attractiveness.

Cohabitation Trends

• 7.2% of U.S. couples cohabit, compared to 0.4% in 1967.

• 50% of couples live together before marriage.

• Cohabitation before marriage is linked to higher divorce rates, possibly due to nontraditional values.

6. Relationship Satisfaction & Breakups

What Makes Relationships Successful?

• Strong communication skills.

• Emotional and sexual faithfulness.

• Mutual support and trust.

• Equality in decision-making.

• Partners with feminist beliefs report greater satisfaction.

Breakups

• Both men and women report similar negative emotions.

• Women are more likely to feel relief and joy post-breakup.

• Women are better at detecting problems before a breakup occurs.

• Coping Mechanisms:

  • Both genders may self-blame.

  • Equal likelihood of substance use post-breakup.

  • Men are more likely to distract themselves from thinking about it.

  • Women are more likely to blame their partner for not investing enough in the relationship.

7. Gender Roles and Relationship Dynamics

Explanations for Gender Differences in Mate Preferences

• Evolutionary Psychology (Controversial Theory):

  • Men prefer young, attractive women due to presumed fertility.

  • Women seek committed, financially stable partners to support children.

  • Criticism: Highly speculative, not applicable to same-gender relationships.

• Social Roles Theory:

  • Mate preferences are influenced by socialization and cultural roles.

  • Women seek financially stable men more in cultures where their economic opportunities are limited.

  • Gender differences in preferences are not inevitable.

8. Single Women & Changing Perspectives on Marriage

• 21% of U.S. women and 27% of Canadian women choose not to marry.

• Reasons include career focus, personal independence, and lack of suitable partners.

• “Singlism” Bias:

  • Single women receive less respect and face discrimination in housing and services.

  • They are often perceived as lonely or socially inadequate, despite research showing high life satisfaction.

• Advantages of Being Single:

  • Freedom, independence, privacy.

  • More leisure time, travel opportunities.

  • Stronger friendships and social networks.

• Disadvantages of Being Single:

  • Loneliness, societal bias.

  • Lack of traditional support structures.

9. LGBTQ+ Relationships

• Sexual minority individuals (lesbian, bisexual, trans, non-binary) experience additional challenges.

• Lesbian relationships tend to be more egalitarian than heterosexual ones.

• Lesbians of color face triple jeopardy (gender, race, sexual orientation bias).

• Legal recognition of same-sex marriage (Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015) improved mental health and stability in LGBTQ+ relationships.

Reproductive Systems and Childbearing

1. Birth Control and Abortion

Birth Control Methods

• Effective Methods:

  • Abstinence

  • Tubal ligation

  • Vasectomy

  • Oral contraceptives (the pill)

  • Condoms

  • Diaphragm and spermicidal cream

  • Spermicidal creams

  • Sterilization

• Less Reliable Methods:

  • Withdrawal method

  • Rhythm method

Factors Influencing Birth Control Use

• Who Uses Birth Control?

  • Social class

  • Ethnicity

  • Level of education

  • Feminist identity

  • Self-esteem & risk aversion

• Obstacles to Using Birth Control:

  • Lack of discussion due to social taboos

  • Limited access to contraceptives

  • Lack of planning before sexual activity

  • Societal stigma about contraception use

  • Perceived impact on romance

  • Pressure from older male partners

Adolescent Birth Rates & Family Planning

• Birth control use varies by age group.

• Contraception access and education are key in lowering adolescent pregnancy rates.

• In developing countries, contraception access is influenced by:

  • Female literacy

  • Cultural attitudes

  • Family planning resources

Abortion

• Historical Context:

  • Before 1973: Laws varied widely by state.

  • Roe v. Wade (1973): Legalized abortion nationwide.

• Abortion Rates and Safety:

  • Legal abortion is one of the safest medical procedures.

  • Access varies depending on location and socioeconomic factors.

Psychological Reactions to Abortion

• Common Reactions:

  • Relief

  • Negative emotions (guilt, sadness, anxiety)

  • Individual differences in response

  • No long-term negative mental health effects for most women

• Factors Affecting Psychological Adjustment:

  • Timing of abortion (earlier is typically easier to cope with)

  • Self-efficacy

  • Social support

• Effects on Children Born to Women Denied Abortion:

  • More social difficulties

  • Higher stress levels

  • Increased likelihood of behavioral and legal issues

• Alternatives to Abortion:

  • Adoption

  • Parenthood

2. Pregnancy

Biology of Pregnancy

• Egg and sperm unite in the fallopian tube.

• The fertilized egg implants in the uterus.

• The placenta develops to support fetal growth.

Physical Reactions During Pregnancy

• Weight gain

• Breast tenderness

• Frequent urination

• Fatigue

• Nausea

• Varying interest in sexual activity

Emotional Reactions During Pregnancy

• Positive Emotions:

  • Wonder and awe

  • Social approval

  • Transition into adulthood

  • Anticipation of motherhood

• Negative Emotions:

  • Anxiety and fear

  • Concerns about body image

  • Health worries

  • Loss of identity

• Factors Influencing Emotional Response:

  • Physical health

  • Whether pregnancy was planned

  • Relationship with the baby’s father

  • Economic status

Infertility

• Affects 10-15% of couples.

• Infertile women experience higher levels of distress.

• Women of color often face additional challenges due to stereotypes and disparities in healthcare.

• Many women adjust and find new life goals.

3. Childbirth

Stages of Labor

• Stage 1:

  • Contractions begin.

  • Cervix dilates to 10 cm.

• Stage 2:

  • Baby moves through the birth canal.

  • Contractions become stronger.

  • Baby is born.

• Stage 3:

  • Placenta is expelled.

  • Estrogen levels drop.

Social and Medical Aspects of Childbirth

• Childbirth classes can prepare parents.

• Support from a doula or family member can improve the experience.

• Cesarean sections may be necessary but are sometimes overused.

• Preterm births pose additional health risks.

Emotional Reactions to Childbirth

• Joy and relief

• Reactions to pain vary

• Fathers' reactions range from excitement to anxiety

Alternative Models of Childbirth

• Prepared childbirth:

  • Education about labor and delivery

  • Relaxation and breathing techniques

  • Support system during birth

• Family-centered approach:

  • Encourages mobility during labor

  • Reduces unnecessary medical interventions

  • Promotes natural pain management

4. Motherhood

Postpartum Adjustments

• Postpartum Blues:

  • Affects about 50% of new mothers

  • Symptoms include mood swings, irritability, and anxiety

  • Typically lasts a few days

• Postpartum Depression:

  • Affects 10-15% of mothers

  • More severe and longer-lasting than postpartum blues

  • Symptoms include extreme sadness, sleep disturbances, and loss of interest in the baby

  • Social factors (e.g., economic stress, lack of support) contribute significantly

Challenges of Motherhood

• Physical exhaustion

• Financial struggles

• Lack of help from partners

• Societal pressure to be a “perfect mother”

• Isolation from adult social interactions

• Disappointment when reality does not match expectations

Positive Aspects of Motherhood

• Sense of strength and resilience

• Deep emotional bonds with children

• Personal growth and new perspectives

Lesbian Mothers

• Similar parenting styles to heterosexual mothers

• Children raised by lesbian mothers develop just as well as those raised in heterosexual households

• Legal challenges exist regarding custody and adoption

Motherhood and Women of Color

• African American and Latinx families emphasize extended family support.

• Indigenous cultures focus on continuity between generations.

• Motherhood experiences vary widely across cultural contexts.

Returning to Work After Childbirth

• Individual differences in adjustment

• Maternity leave policies impact transition back to work

• Employed mothers report similar mental health outcomes as stay-at-home mothers

Reproductive Systems and Childbearing

1. Birth Control and Abortion

Birth Control Methods

• Effective Methods:

  • Abstinence

  • Tubal ligation

  • Vasectomy

  • Oral contraceptives (the pill)

  • Condoms

  • Diaphragm and spermicidal cream

  • Spermicidal creams

  • Sterilization

• Less Reliable Methods:

  • Withdrawal method

  • Rhythm method

Factors Influencing Birth Control Use

• Who Uses Birth Control?

  • Social class

  • Ethnicity

  • Level of education

  • Feminist identity

  • Self-esteem & risk aversion

• Obstacles to Using Birth Control:

  • Lack of discussion due to social taboos

  • Limited access to contraceptives

  • Lack of planning before sexual activity

  • Societal stigma about contraception use

  • Perceived impact on romance

  • Pressure from older male partners

Adolescent Birth Rates & Family Planning

• Birth control use varies by age group.

• Contraception access and education are key in lowering adolescent pregnancy rates.

• In developing countries, contraception access is influenced by:

  • Female literacy

  • Cultural attitudes

  • Family planning resources

Abortion

• Historical Context:

  • Before 1973: Laws varied widely by state.

  • Roe v. Wade (1973): Legalized abortion nationwide.

• Abortion Rates and Safety:

  • Legal abortion is one of the safest medical procedures.

  • Access varies depending on location and socioeconomic factors.

Psychological Reactions to Abortion

• Common Reactions:

  • Relief

  • Negative emotions (guilt, sadness, anxiety)

  • Individual differences in response

  • No long-term negative mental health effects for most women

• Factors Affecting Psychological Adjustment:

  • Timing of abortion (earlier is typically easier to cope with)

  • Self-efficacy

  • Social support

• Effects on Children Born to Women Denied Abortion:

  • More social difficulties

  • Higher stress levels

  • Increased likelihood of behavioral and legal issues

• Alternatives to Abortion:

  • Adoption

  • Parenthood

2. Pregnancy

Biology of Pregnancy

• Egg and sperm unite in the fallopian tube.

• The fertilized egg implants in the uterus.

• The placenta develops to support fetal growth.

Physical Reactions During Pregnancy

• Weight gain

• Breast tenderness

• Frequent urination

• Fatigue

• Nausea

• Varying interest in sexual activity

Emotional Reactions During Pregnancy

• Positive Emotions:

  • Wonder and awe

  • Social approval

  • Transition into adulthood

  • Anticipation of motherhood

• Negative Emotions:

  • Anxiety and fear

  • Concerns about body image

  • Health worries

  • Loss of identity

• Factors Influencing Emotional Response:

  • Physical health

  • Whether pregnancy was planned

  • Relationship with the baby’s father

  • Economic status

Infertility

• Affects 10-15% of couples.

• Infertile women experience higher levels of distress.

• Women of color often face additional challenges due to stereotypes and disparities in healthcare.

• Many women adjust and find new life goals.

3. Childbirth

Stages of Labor

• Stage 1:

  • Contractions begin.

  • Cervix dilates to 10 cm.

• Stage 2:

  • Baby moves through the birth canal.

  • Contractions become stronger.

  • Baby is born.

• Stage 3:

  • Placenta is expelled.

  • Estrogen levels drop.

Social and Medical Aspects of Childbirth

• Childbirth classes can prepare parents.

• Support from a doula or family member can improve the experience.

• Cesarean sections may be necessary but are sometimes overused.

• Preterm births pose additional health risks.

Emotional Reactions to Childbirth

• Joy and relief

• Reactions to pain vary

• Fathers' reactions range from excitement to anxiety

Alternative Models of Childbirth

• Prepared childbirth:

  • Education about labor and delivery

  • Relaxation and breathing techniques

  • Support system during birth

• Family-centered approach:

  • Encourages mobility during labor

  • Reduces unnecessary medical interventions

  • Promotes natural pain management

4. Motherhood

Postpartum Adjustments

• Postpartum Blues:

  • Affects about 50% of new mothers

  • Symptoms include mood swings, irritability, and anxiety

  • Typically lasts a few days

• Postpartum Depression:

  • Affects 10-15% of mothers

  • More severe and longer-lasting than postpartum blues

  • Symptoms include extreme sadness, sleep disturbances, and loss of interest in the baby

  • Social factors (e.g., economic stress, lack of support) contribute significantly

Challenges of Motherhood

• Physical exhaustion

• Financial struggles

• Lack of help from partners

• Societal pressure to be a “perfect mother”

• Isolation from adult social interactions

• Disappointment when reality does not match expectations

Positive Aspects of Motherhood

• Sense of strength and resilience

• Deep emotional bonds with children

• Personal growth and new perspectives

Lesbian Mothers

• Similar parenting styles to heterosexual mothers

• Children raised by lesbian mothers develop just as well as those raised in heterosexual households

• Legal challenges exist regarding custody and adoption

Motherhood and Women of Color

• African American and Latinx families emphasize extended family support.

• Indigenous cultures focus on continuity between generations.

• Motherhood experiences vary widely across cultural contexts.

Returning to Work After Childbirth

• Individual differences in adjustment

• Maternity leave policies impact transition back to work

• Employed mothers report similar mental health outcomes as stay-at-home mothers

Study Guide: Education and Achievement

1. Gender and Education

• Early Education Challenges for Girls

  • Girls often feel invisible in the classroom.

  • Adolescent challenges (body dissatisfaction, hormonal changes, self-esteem) make school more difficult.

  • Despite this, girls and women generally earn better grades than boys at all levels.

  • Girls perform well in math and science despite stereotypes.

• Supportive Schools Improve Outcomes for Girls

  • Characteristics of supportive schools:

    • Gender equality is a priority.

    • Mentoring programs are in place.

    • High expectations for girls are encouraged.

    • Parental involvement plays a key role.

  • Without support, girls may:

    • Feel invisible.

    • Experience sexual harassment.

    • Choose less challenging courses and careers.

2. Math & Science Performance

• Gender Disparities in STEM

  • Women enroll in upper-level math classes at similar rates as men.

  • Teachers often expect more from male students in STEM subjects.

  • Male students receive more encouragement and helpful feedback.

  • Female students may:

    • Feel less confident in male-dominated academic fields.

    • Opt for gender-role-consistent courses despite strong abilities.

    • Have fewer role models in STEM careers.

• Cultural and Social Influences on STEM

  • Parents may believe boys are more naturally skilled in science.

  • Cultural messages may discourage girls from pursuing STEM.

  • Women are less likely to see themselves as "geniuses."

  • In the U.S., personal job satisfaction is often prioritized over salary.

• Programs Supporting Women in STEM

  • National Girls Collaborative Project (NGCP) – Expands STEM access for girls.

  • National Math and Science Initiative (NMS) – Improves STEM teaching.

  • Women in Engineering Proactive Network (WEPAN) – Supports female engineering students.

  • Million Women Mentors (MWM) – Pairs female STEM professionals with young women.

  • American Association of University Women (AAUW) – Researches barriers and funds STEM programs.

  • Scientista – Provides a network for female science students.

  • Association for Women in Science (AWIS) – Advocates policy changes for gender equity in STEM.

3. Higher Education & Career Aspirations

• Women’s Presence in Higher Education

  • Women are more likely than men to pursue higher education.

  • Gender gap is largest between Black women and men.

  • Women earn 51% of all Ph.D.s awarded to U.S. students.

  • More women are entering medicine, veterinary medicine, and law.

• Gender Disparities in Faculty Positions

  • Faculty remains male-dominated:

    • 42% of full-time faculty are women.

    • 27% of tenured faculty are women.

    • Only 17% of faculty in top chemistry departments are women.

• Challenges for Women in Academia

  • "Chilly Climate" – Women and people of color face discrimination.

  • Women may feel disrespected, ignored, and undervalued.

  • Women participate less in traditionally male programs due to unwelcoming environments.

• Women of Color & Higher Education

  • More Black women than Black men attend college, but they face stereotypes.

  • Faculty may have low expectations for women of color.

  • Financial barriers may limit access to higher education.

  • Some families, especially Latinx and Asian, may prefer daughters to stay close to home.

  • Native American students may attend tribal colleges for healthcare and vocational training.

4. Career Aspirations & Success

• Women and men have similar career aspirations.

• More women (63%) than men (51%) attend college to prepare for graduate or professional school.

• Women choosing non-traditional careers tend to be:

  • Independent, confident, emotionally stable, feminist.

  • Supported by family and mentors.

  • Inspired by female role models.

• Women of color face additional challenges due to discrimination and limited resources.

• Work-life balance:

  • Women consider marriage and children more when planning careers.

  • Many believe mothers should delay working until children start school.

5. Achievement Motivation & Confidence

• How People Define Success

  • People define success in personal, interpersonal, and mastery terms.

  • Women are more likely to prioritize personal growth and relationships.

  • Wealth and power are linked to lower well-being and satisfaction.

• Attributions for Success & Failure

  • Women tend to attribute success to luck or effort rather than ability.

  • Men more often attribute success to personal ability.

  • Women’s self-confidence is more influenced by feedback.

  • Negative feedback lowers women’s confidence more than men’s.

  • Women are more likely to believe external evaluations even when inaccurate.

• Fear of Success (Matina Horner)

  • Some women may fear success due to societal expectations.

  • Public settings and masculine tasks can lower confidence in women.

6. Gender Equity in Professional Fields

• Expectancy-Value Theory of Motivation (Jacquelynne Eccles, 1994)

  • Achievement behavior is influenced by:

    • Expectations for success – "Will I do well?"

    • Utility value – "How useful is this course for my future?"

    • Interest-enjoyment – "Do I find this interesting?"

  • Women’s career choices are influenced by personal and societal factors.

• Ellevate (formerly 85 Broads)

  • A network for women in business to promote career growth and mentorship.