Chapter 17: Science and Commerce in Early Modern Europe

• Scientific Revolution was the beginning of a new era in European history in the 17th century
  • Europeans started to challenge scientific thought
• There were several characteristics of the Scientific Revolution
  • People started to understand the mathematical nature of the world around them
  • Development of scientific institutions (labs, etc.)
• Early science was restricted to few universities and only available to the wealthy
• Patronage System
  • Scientists of the time relied on wealthy patrons to support their work
  • Patrons were ultimately in charge of deciding the direction that early science took
• Universities were social institutions
  • Theology was the main reason
• Anatomy was introduced in the 16th century
• Universities weren’t properly equipped
• Academies were considered to be clubs for people who wanted to live in the ancient world
  • Academies provided funding
  • Academies allowed for discourse to develop amongst scientists
• Alchemy was an attempt at trying to change base metals into gold
  • First to place emphasis on experimentation and technology
• Classical sources were the foundation for the Scientific Revolution
• Aristotelian Philosophy was used as a starting point for science
• Hermeticism meant that all objects shared a universal spirit that would eventually be revealed spontaneously
• Natural Philosophy was the attempt to explain the natural world
• Tycho Brahe discovered a nova and a comet which challenged Aristotelian paradigm
• Galileo Galilei declared that planets were roughly made out of the same materials as Earth
  • Challenged the biblical view of the heavens
  • Was tried and found guilty of Heresy
• Descartes
  • Discourse on Method (1637)
  • Was schooled in Aristotelian philosophy
  • Rejected knowledge that was based upon probability
  • Used “proofs” to support philosophical learning
• Some believed that one could only accept God upon proving his existence
• Newton used experimental philosophy (physics)
  • Began with the natural world and then tried to explain it
  • Used math to create models that were based on nature
  • Expressed his observations in numerals
  • Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)
  • Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
• Expansion of knowledge allowed for the concept that one can understand themselves by understanding nature and their place in it
• Commercial Revolution
  • Development in new patterns of trade, colonization, and commodities that ended up increasing material luxuries for Europe
  • First great commercial empire was the Dutch, followed by the English
  • Three phases to the Commercial Revolution
  • Precious Metal Trade (1440-1660)
    • Began in Americas under Spanish leadership
    • Eventually weakened the Dutch/English pirates & loss of control over trade routes
    • Opened Americas for colonization and trade
  • Spice Trade (1550-19th century)
    • Europeans (Portuguese, Dutch, & English) exchanged precious metals for spices (Cinnamon, Pepper, Nutmeg, etc.)
    • Started as bilateral trade
  • Plantation System (1650-1800)
  • Brought increasing wealth to Europe in form of goods and services
• Dutch became greatest European Economic Empire in 17th century
  • Innovative techniques were used
  • Rational Management
  • Supportive cultural/social environment
• Rise of “Dutch Masters”
  • Rise to power initially started in 30 Years War against Spain
  • Good farmers and manufacturers
  • Good traders
• Mercantile organization was normally controlled by the King, was easy to tax, and competition was managed by the states
• Mercantilist Theory
  • Wealth of a nation had to do with the stocks of precious metals
• Euro-Asian trade started as a bilateral trade to deal with European consumer demands
  • Dutch dominated spice trade in 1650
• Coffeehouses became extremely wealthy and popular in the 17th century
• Tea was popular across all levels of European society
  • Became dietary staple within a generation
  • Importation rose annually
  • Introduction of opium led to triangular trade as it had started as bilateral trade
• Unlimited demand for sugar (high prices)
• African slaves were originally imported for gold and silver mines
• Tobacco became popular under Dutch marketing and distribution
• Plantation systems set a pattern for development based on trade and not conquest
• North America’s government developed in response to Bacon’s Rebellion
• Wars of Commerce
  • Europeans were in direct competition and conflict over commerce due to Zero-sum paradigm
• Mercantile Wars were a series of three wars that the English and Dutch fought over the control of commerce
• Wars of Louis XIV took place as Louis XIV wanted to expand territory claims to the south and the east
• War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
  • Treaty of Utrecht (1713-1714)
• Colonial wars happened due to the growth of consumer goods from America
  • Seven Years’ War

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