Anatomy and Physiology 1 Exam 1 (Chapters 1-4)
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide
Section 1-2 Anatomy (structure) and physiology (function) are closely integrated
1) What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy is the study of internal and external body structures and their physical relationships among other body parts. Physiology is the study of how living organisms perform their vital functions. Simply, physiology is the study of the interactions between anatomy.
2) Define gross (macroscopic) and microscopic anatomy.
Gross anatomy involves examining large structures and can be done without the use of a microscope and involves studying anatomy by dissecting a cadaver. Microscopic anatomy deals with structures that we cannot see without magnification. Different types of microscopes allow you to see different tissue structures.
3) Define histology.
Histology is the examination of tissues (groups of specialized cells that work together to perform specific functions).
4) What is the difference between a sign and a symptom. Give examples of each.
A sign is an objective disease indication, an example would be a fever. A symptom is a subjective disease indiction, an example would be tiredness or nausea.
5) What is the scientific method?
The scientific method is a system of advancing knowledge that begins by proposing a hypothesis to answer a question and then testing that hypothesis with data collected through observation and experimentation.
Section 1-3 Levels of organization progress from chemicals to complete organisms
1) List the levels of organization from most simple to most complex.
Chemical/molecular, cellular, tissue, organs, organ system, organism (human)
2) List what each organizational level is comprised of (ie: Tissue: comprised of similar cells which work together)
Chemical/molecular: atoms are the smallest stable units of matter; molecules consist of groups of atoms. They combine to form molecules with complex shapes
Cellular: cells are the smallest living unit in the body
Tissue: groups of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions. For example, cardiac muscle cells interact with other cell types and materials outside the cell to form cardiac tissue.
Organs: 2 or more tissues working together to perform a specific function
Organ system: group of large organs interacting to perform particular functions
Organism: human, all of body’s organ system must work together to maintain life and health of the organism
Section 1-4 Medical terminology is important to understanding anatomy and physiology
1) What is Terminologia Anatomica, and why is it important?
A published work by the Federal Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) and the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) in 1998. It is important because it established the worldwide standard for human anatomical terminology. This was important so that scientists throughout the world used the same name for each body structure.
Section 1-5 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical positions and directions, and body sections
1) Describe the stance of a body in the anatomical position.
The hands are at the sides with palms facing forward and feet are together. This position is seen from the anterior (front) view. The anatomical position is the standard anatomical reference for the human form.
2) Use the information in Spotlight Figure 1-2 Levels of Organization to answer the following:
Name the 12 organ systems and list the organs that belong to each. FYI: this figure separates the male and female reproductive systems, due to the various structures that comprise each. This is why I am asking for 12 organ systems, instead of 11.
Integumentary: skin, hair, sweat glands, nails
Skeletal: bones, cartilage, associated ligaments, bone marrow
Muscular: skeletal muscles, associated tendons
Lymphatic: spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils
Respiratory: nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli
Digestive: teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, pancreas
Nervous: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs
Endocrine: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems
Cardiovascular: heart, blood, blood vessels
Urinary: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Female reproductive: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands
Male reproductive: testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum
3) Learning anatomical terms of body regions is imperative when describing specific parts of the body amongst healthcare professionals. When studying the course material this semester, you will see many of the scientific terms that are listed below. Knowledge of these anatomical terms will facilitate learning and understanding of topics that we will cover in subsequent chapters this semester. Use the textbook Figure 1-3 Anatomical Landmarks to complete this question.
-What is the common name for the following scientific terms. (ie: popliteal refers to the back of the knee)
1) acromial: shoulder 11) femoral: thigh
2) antebrachial: front of elbow 12) inguinal: groin
3) axillary: armpit 13) ocular: eye
4) brachial: refers to arm 14) olecranal: back of elbow
5) buccal: cheek 15) otic: ear
6) calcaneal: heel of foot 16) pedal: foot
7) carpal: wrist 17) plantar: sole of foot
8) cephalic: head 18) popliteal: back of knee
9) cervical: neck 19) tarsal: ankle
10) cranial: skull 20) thoracic: thorax, chest
4) What is the difference between anatomical quadrants and anatomical regions? Which one would give a more precise location of a structure?
Anatomical quadrants divide the body into quadrants. Anatomical regions are specific areas used for reference purposes. The anatomical region would give a more precise location of a structure.
5) Define the following directional references and understand how they are properly used when describing one body region in comparison to another. (ie: distal means “away from an attached base” and proximal means “closer to an attached base”. In general, the “base” is the trunk of the body. Therefore, the tarsals are distal to the patella, which means that the ankle bones are further away from the trunk of the body than the kneecap is.)
a) proximal/distal: proximal is toward the point of attachment of a limb to trunk (shoulder is proximal to wrist), distal is away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk (fingers are distal to wrist) d) anterior/posterior: anterior is the front surface (navel) and posterior is the back surface (trunk)
b) medial/lateral: medial is toward the midline and lateral is away from the midline
c) cranial/caudal: cranial is toward the head and caudal is toward the tail
d) anterior/posterior: anterior is the front surface (navel) and posterior is the back surface (trunk)
e) dorsal/ventral: dorsal is the back (posterior) and ventral is the front (anterior)
f) superficial/deep: superficial is near the body's surface and deep is near the body’s interior
6) What body parts are separated when cut by a frontal/coronal section?
A frontal/coronal section is a vertical plane dividing the body into anterior/posterior portions; plane oriented parallel to long axis. Cuts in this plane usually refer to sections passing through skull
7) What body parts are separated when cut by a sagittal section? What is a parasagittal section?
A sagittal section is vertical plane dividing body into left and right portions; plane oriented parallel to long axis. A parasagittal section if plane is offset from the middle; separates body into unequal right and left sides
8) What body parts are separated when cut by a transverse section?
A transverse section divides body into superior & inferior portions; plane oriented perpendicular to long axis (horizontal cut)
Section 1-6 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
1) What muscular sheet separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity?
The diaphragm
2) Which two cavities are located within the thoracic cavity?
The pleural cavity and pericardial cavity
3) Which organ is found in the pericardial cavity?
The heart
4) Which organ is found in the pleural cavity?
The lungs
5) What does the peritoneal cavity surround?
The digestive system: the liver, stomach, spleen, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
6) Which serous membrane type covers organs? Which serous membrane type lines body cavities?
The visceral serosa covers organs and parietal serosa lines body cavities.
7) What is the function of serous fluid?
The function of serous fluid is to moisten membranes and coats opposing surfaces and reduces friction
8) The kidneys and pancreas are positioned retroperitoneally. Where in the body does retroperitoneal describe?
Retroperitoneal describes the organs between the peritoneal lining and the muscular wall of the abdominal cavity (kidneys and pancreas)
Section 1-7 Homeostasis, the state of internal balance, is continually regulated
1) Define homeostasis.
Various physiological processes act to prevent harmful changes in the composition of body fluids and environment inside our cells, is the existence of a stable internal environment
Section 1-8 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, whereas positive feedback enhances them
1) Describe the functions of positive and negative feedback. Do most homeostatic regulatory mechanisms involve positive or negative feedback?
The function of positive feedback is to increase the change that triggered it. The function of negative feedback is to oppose variations from normal. Homeostatic regulatory mechanisms involve mainly negative feedback.
2) What type of feedback mechanism is used for thermoregulation?
Negative
3) What type of feedback mechanism is blood clotting?
Positive
4) What is dynamic equilibrium?
Dynamic equilibrium is a state of balance between continuing processes
Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization Study Guide
Section 2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter
1) What three subatomic particles make up atoms? What are their charges and where are they located?
Neutrons have a neutral charge and are in the nucleus of an atom. Protons have a positive charge and are in the nucleus of an atom. Electrons have a negative charge and are in the electron cloud of an atom.
2) What is the difference between an electron shell and a valance shell?
An electron shell is the layers in the electron cloud that surround the nucleus of an atom. The valence shell is the outermost shell of electrons.
3) How many electrons fill the first, second, and third electron shells?
The first shell is 2, the second shell is 8, and the third shell is 8.
4) If an atom has a total of five electrons, how many electrons does the valence shell contain?
3 electrons
Section 2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by interactions between atoms
1) What is a cation? (You can remember this since the “t” in cation looks like a positive sign)
A cation is a positively charged ion
2) What is an anion? (You can remember this since the “n” in anion reminding you it’s negative)
An anion is a negatively charged atom
3) What is an ionic bond and how is it formed?
An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed between a cation and an anion.
4) What is a covalent bond and how is it formed?
A covalent bond is formed between two uncharged atoms.
5) What is the difference between non-polar covalent and polar covalent bonds?
A non-polar covalent bond involves equal sharing of electrons and occurs between 2 atoms of same type. A polar covalent bond involves unequal sharing of electrons between 2 different atoms.
6) What is a hydrogen bond and how is it formed?
A hydrogen bond is a strong bond between hydrogen and either flourine, oxygen, or nitrogen
7) Which kind of bond holds atoms in water molecules together? What bonds attract individual water molecules to one another? (See Figure 2-7 and 2-8)
Polar covalent bonds hold water molecules together. Hydrogen bonds attract individual water molecules to one another.
Section 2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions are important types of chemical reactions in physiology
1) What is the difference between kinetic energy and potential energy?
Kinetic energy is energy of motion (energy that can be transferred to another object & do work) and potential energy is stored energy (energy that has potential to do work).
2) What is the difference between hydrolysis reactions and dehydration synthesis reactions? Which one is catabolic? Which is anabolic? (Hint: The way I distinguish between catabolic and anabolic reactions is that I know anabolic steroids are inappropriately used to build muscle—so anabolic reactions build up.) (Hint: the prefix -hydro means “water”, and the suffix -lysis means “breakdown”; therefore, hydrolysis means breaking down a molecule using water. Breaking down molecules produce smaller molecules; therefore, hydrolysis reactions are catabolic. Or, if anyone has a cat, you know they tend to destroy things 😊).
Hydrolysis reactions involve decomposition of a molecule using water whereas dehydration synthesis forms molecules by removing water from the reaction. Hydrolysis is catabolic and dehydration synthesis is anabolic
Section 2-4 Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the energy to start them
1) What is activation energy?
Activation energy is the amount of energy required for a reaction to occur
2) What is the function of an enzyme?
An enzyme provides an alternate pathway for a reaction, decreasing the amount of activation energy required for the reaction to occur.
Section 2-5 Inorganic compounds lack carbon while organic compounds contain carbon
1) In general, what is the molecular difference between organic and inorganic compounds? (Note: there are exceptions to these rules. For example, carbon dioxide CO2 contains carbon, but it is an inorganic compound because the carbon doesn’t have a bond to hydrogen.)
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen as the base while inorganic compounds do not.
Section 2-6 Physiological systems depend on water
1) What happens if you put an ionic compound in water?
It will dissociate
2) What is an electrolyte?
A compound that conducts electricity when dissociated in water.
3) What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds? What types of compounds are fats and oils? (Hint: the suffix -phobia means “a strong feeling of disliking or being afraid of someone or something”. The suffix -philia means “a love for”. If a person has a “phobia’, they are usually afraid of or uncomfortable with something. For example, arachnophobia is the fear of spiders. In contrast, the city of Philadelphia is the city of brotherly love.)
Hydrophobic compounds do not dissolve in water, they separate from it. Hydrophilic compounds dissolve in water and create a substance. Fats and oils are hydrophobic.
Section 2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis
1) On the pH scale, what is the pH of pure water?
7
2) What pH range is considered acidic? Does it contain more H+ or more OH-?
The pH range of anything under 7 is considered acidic and contains more hydrogen ions
3) What pH range is considered basic? Does it contain more H+ or more OH-? (Note: basic is synonymous with alkaline. You will see both words used interchangeably this semester.)
The pH range of anything over 7 is considered basic and contains more hydroxide ions
4) The normal pH range of blood is 7.35-7.45. Is this considered neutral, basic, or acidic?
This is considered slightly basic but neutral
Section 2-8 Acids, bases and salts have important physiological roles
1) What is a buffer?
A buffer is a solution with a stabilized pH due to a weak acid and its conjugate strong base or vice versa. The additions of acids or bases will react with the conjugate substance and result in a stable pH.
Section 2-9 Living things contain organic compounds made up of monomers, polymers, and functional groups
1) What is the difference between a monomer and a polymer? What type of chemical reaction forms polymers by joining monomers?
A monomer is one molecule, and a polymer is multiple monomers joined together. The chemical reaction of forming polymers from monomers is dehydration synthesis.
Section 2-10 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
1) Are carbohydrates organic or inorganic?
Carbohydrates are organic compounds since they contain carbon and hydrogen as the base
2) What is the structural difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?
Monosaccharides are simple sugars, made up of 3-7 carbon atoms. Disaccharides are 2 monosaccharides joined together. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed from dehydration synthesis, made up of monosaccharides or disaccharides.
3) Which monosaccharide is the most important metabolic “fuel” in the body?
The most important metabolic fuel in the body is glucose.
4) What type of chemical reaction occurs during the formation of a disaccharide from two monosaccharides? Is this an anabolic or catabolic reaction?
Dehydration synthesis, which is an anabolic reaction
5) What type of chemical reaction occurs when a disaccharide is broken into two monosaccharides? Is this an anabolic or catabolic reaction?
Hydrolysis, which is a catabolic reaction
6) What type of sugar is glycogen? (ie: mono-, di-, or polysaccharide?) What is the name of the monosaccharide that comprises glycogen?
It is a polysaccharide made up of glucose
Section 2-11 Lipids often contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of 1:2
1) Are lipids organic or inorganic?
Lipids are organic since they contain carbon and hydrogen as the base
2) What two molecules are the building blocks of monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides?
Glycerol and fatty acids
3) Why are phospholipids and glycolipids named as such?
Phospholipids are made up of phosphates and lipids and glycolipids are made up of glucose and lipids
Section 2-12 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed by amino acids
1) Are proteins organic or inorganic?
Proteins are organic since they contain carbon and hydrogen as the base
2) What are the building blocks (basic subunits) of proteins?
Amino acids
3) What molecules do peptide bonds join?
Amino acids to build proteins
4) Describe the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of a protein.
NOTE: This is very important: The shape of a protein determines its functional characteristics, and the sequence of amino acids ultimately determines its shape. Small changes in the ionic composition, temperature, or pH of their surroundings can affect the function of proteins.
The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids (A1, A2, A3, and so on) along its length; sequence of amino acids along length of single polypeptide. The secondary structure is a result of hydrogen bonding along length of polypeptide chain; such bonding often produces an alpha helix or a beta sheet. The tertiary structure involves coiling & folding of a polypeptide; the polypeptide chain is arranged in an alpha helix. The quaternary structure develops when separate polypeptide subunits interact to form larger molecule
5) What type of organic molecule are most enzymes?
Remember: Enzymes can function as catalysts for reactions, therefore they accelerate a chemical
reaction without itself being permanently changed or consumed.
Proteins
6) What is the importance of a cofactor in an enzyme’s function?
Specifies the reaction that an enzyme can catalyze
7) What two factors affect enzyme function?
Temperature and pH
8) What occurs if a protein denatures?
The protein will change shape or lose function due to being away from its optimal ramge of temperature or pH
Section 2-13 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids
1) What are the building blocks (basic subunit) of nucleic acids?
C, H, O, N, P
2) What is the function of DNA?
To encode the information needed to make proteins
3) What is the function of RNA?
Use the information provided by the DNA in order to build the proteins
4) Which 4 nitrogenous bases are found in DNA? What are their symbols?
Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine (ATGC)
5) Which 4 nitrogenous bases are found in RNA? What are their symbols?
Adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine (AUGC)
6) List three main types of RNA.
Messenger, transfer, ribosomal
7) Using your knowledge of complementary base pairing, what is the complimentary DNA sequence for the DNA sequence ATG?
TAC
8) Using your knowledge of complementary base pairing, what is the complimentary RNA sequence for the DNA sequence ATG?
UAC
9) Use the information in Table 2-6 Comparison of RNA and DNA to answer the following: List structural and functional differences between DNA and RNA.
RNA is ribose and made up of Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Uracil (U), it varies from < 100 nucleotides to ~50,000, Varies with hydrogen bonding along length of the strand; there are 3 main types: mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, it performs protein synthesis as directed by DNA. DNA is deoxyribose and is made up of Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), always >45 million nucleotides, paired strands coiled in double helix, stores genetic info that controls protein synthesis
Section 2-14 ATP is a high energy compound used by cells
1) What occurs during a phosphorylation reaction?
A phosphorylation reaction is the process of adding a phosphate group to another molecule, which produces a high energy bond.
2) What molecule is produced by the phosphorylation of ADP?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
3) What enzyme breaks down ATP to ADP?
Adenosine triphosphatease
Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization Study Guide
An Introduction to Cells
1) What are the two general classes of cells? Briefly describe each.
Prokaryotic cells are unicellular and typically do not have a nucleus, they are also microscopic. Eukaryotic cells are multicellular and have nucleus bound organelles, they can grow bigger in size than prokaryotes.
Section 3-1 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions
1) The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer (contains two layers [bilayer] of phosphorylated lipids [phospholipids]) that has hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties. How are the two layers of phospholipids arranged in the plasma membrane due to those properties?
Hydrophilic heads face outward on both sides toward watery environments and hydrophobic fatty acid tails face inside membrane
2) There are various types of membrane proteins that perform specific functions. What body system uses recognition proteins to determine if a cell is abnormal or normal?
Recognition proteins are used in the immune system
3) Receptor proteins in the plasma membrane are sensitive to the presence of specific extracellular
ions or molecules called ligands. In general, what occurs when a ligand binds to its specific receptor?
A ligand is anything from small ion (calcium ion) to relatively large & complex hormone. Binding may trigger changes in activity of the cell
4) What is the function of cell membrane carrier proteins?
Transport specific solutes through membrane
Section 3-2 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform particular functions
1) What is the difference between the cytosol and the cytoplasm?
Cytosol is a mixture of water & various dissolved & insoluble materials (nutrients, ions, proteins, waste products), in which organelles & inclusions are suspended; it is also known as intracellular fluid. The cytoplasm is the material between plasma membrane & membrane surrounding nucleus; 3 major subdivisions: cytosol, organelles, & inclusions.
2) Use the information in Spotlight Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell to describe the structure and function of the following cell structures: NOTE: Ensure that you read the textbook material about each of these cell components to help understand their functions.
Microvilli: small, finger-shaped extensions of plasma membrane containing microfilaments; attach to cytoskeleton; increase surface area for absorption
Smooth ER: network of membranous channels extending throughout cytoplasm w/no attached ribosomes
Centrioles: form spindle apparatus during cell division, cytoplasm containing 2 centrioles perpendicular to each other, composed of short microtubules, essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division
Golgi apparatus: vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face, stacks of flattened membranes (cisternae) containing chambers, modifies & packages secretions (hormones/enzymes, for release from cell), adds/removes carbohydrates to/from proteins, renews/modifies the plasma membrane, packages special enzymes within vesicles (lysosomes) for use in cytoplasm)
Cilia: long, slender extensions of plasma membrane containing microtubules; 2 types: primary & motile, primary cilium acts as sensor, nonmotile; found on variety of cells; senses environmental stimuli, motile cilia move materials over cell surfaces; found on cells lining respiratory & reproductive tracts (microtubules in cilia anchored to basal body); beat rhythmically
Lysosomes: powerful enzyme-containing vesicles produced by Golgi apparatus, 2 types: primary & secondary, intracellular removal of damaged organelles/pathogens, function to destroy bacteria, break down molecules, & recycle damaged organelles, primary: contain inactive enzymes, secondary: formed when primary fuse w/damaged organelles & enzymes are activated
Flagella: whip-like extension of plasma membrane; have 9+2 microtubule organization as motile cilia, but longer & beat wavelike, assist cell in movement; only human cell with flagellum is sperm with one per cell Peroxisomes: small vesicles containing degradative enzymes; produced by division of existing peroxisomes, catabolism of fats & other organic compounds (fatty acids), neutralization of toxic compounds generated in the process, produce free radical hydrogen peroxide, catalase converts H2O2 to O2 & H2O
Ribosomes: organelles that synthesize proteins, small & large ribosomal subunits; contain ribosome RNA (rRNA), fixed ribosomes: bound to RER; manufacture proteins that enter ER for packaging, free ribosomes: scattered in cytoplasm; manufacture proteins that enter cytosol directly
Mitochondria: double membrane, with inner membrane folds (cristae, surround fluid contents [matrix]) enclosing important metabolic enzymes & smooth outer membrane, produce 95% of ATP required by the cell; take chemical energy from food (glucose)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): network of membranous channels extending throughout cytoplasm; surface covered with ribosomes, active in protein & glycoprotein synthesis; folds proteins into secondary & tertiary structures; encloses products in transport vesicles for delivery to Golgi apparatus
Proteosomes: organelles that contain enzymes, disassemble damaged proteins for recycling.
Nucleus: largest organelle; has nucleoplasm containing nucleotides, enzymes, nucleoproteins, & chromatin, nuclear matrix: support filaments, nucleosomes: DNA coiled around histones; loosely coiled into chromatin in non-dividing cells; tightly coiled chromosomes form before division, surrounded by nuclear envelope (double membrane); perinuclear space-between 2 layers; nuclear pores-communication passages, cells control center; control of metabolism & protein synthesis; storage & processing of genetic information
Nucleolus: transient nuclear organelle; made of RNA, enzymes, & histones, synthesizes rRNA & assemble ribosomal subunits
Section 3-3 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities
1) What is a nucleosome? Briefly describe its function.
A nucleosome is DNA coiled around histones (proteins); winding allows a great deal of DNA to be packaged in small space, loosely coiled into chromatin in non-dividing cells; tightly coiled chromosomes form before division
2) What is the difference between chromatin and chromosomes? Which would you find in non-dividing cells? Which would you find in dividing cells?
Chromatin is a tangle of fine filaments; in cells not dividing, nucleosomes loosely coiled within nucleus; gives nucleus clumped, grainy appearance. Chromosomes are tighter coiled nucleosomes forming just before cell division begins
3) Certain areas of DNA contain three consecutive nitrogenous bases called triplets. What does each triplet represent?
a single amino acid
4) A gene is the functional unit of heredity. What does a gene’s sequence of nucleotides specify?
the amino acids needed to produce a specific protein
Section 3-4 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function
1) In general, what occurs during transcription?
synthesis of RNA from DNA template; all RNA (including mRNA) formed through transcription of DNA
2) What is the function of mRNA?
carries information needed to synthesize proteins
3) What is the name of the DNA strand that contains triplets that are used as a template for mRNA synthesis?
template strand (other strand called coding strand, which contains triplets specifying sequence of amino acids in polypeptide)
4) What enzyme is necessary to transcribe DNA into RNA?
RNA polymerase
5) What RNA nucleotide is added in place of thymine in the synthesized RNA strand?
Uracil
6) What is a codon and what does it code for?
a three-base mRNA sequence; contain nitrogenous bases complementary to those of triplets in DNA template strand
7) What is the difference between an intron and an exon?
An intron is a noncoding intervening sequence to be snipped out in RNA processing. An exon is the remaining coding segments to be spliced together in RNA processing
8) In general, what occurs during translation?
The formation of a linear chain of amino acids (polypeptide) using the information from an mRNA strand
9) What is the function of tRNA?
amino acids provided to polypeptide chain; each tRNA binds & delivers a specific type of amino acid
10) What is an anticodon? What type of RNA contains an anticodon?
An anticodon is a trinucleotide sequence loated at one end of a tRNA molecule
11) What is the sequence of the mRNA start codon?
AUG (methionine)
12) When does elongation of the mRNA strand terminate?
when it reaches the stop codon & the completed polypeptide is released, usually UAA, UAG, UGA
Section 3-5 Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism that assists membrane passage of solutes and water
1) What is the function of a selectively permeable membrane?
A selectively permeable membrane allows some materials to move freely; restricts other materials based on their: size, electrical charge, molecular shape, lipid solubility; ex. plasma membrane
2) What is diffusion? Is it an active or passive process?
Diffusion is the net movement of substance (solutes) from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration; described as proceeding down a concentration gradient (difference between high & low concentrations of substance). It is a passive process
3) What is osmosis? Is it an active or passive process?
Osmosis is net diffusion of water across membrane; movement of water. It is a passive process
4) What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?
Diffusion describes the movement of solutes (net movement of solutes from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration); osmosis describes the movement of water (water molecules diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solutes)
5) Define osmolarity.
Osmolarity is the total solute concentration in a solution; AKA osmotic concentration
6) What occurs if you place a cell in an isotonic solution? A hypotonic solution? A hypertonic solution? (Remember: hypo swells, hyper shrinks, and iso stays the same). Figure 3-17 is a great visual representation of the concept.
If you place a call in an isotonic solution it does not cause osmotic flow; two solutions being compared have equal solute, size of cell looks "normal". If it is in a hypotonic solution then water flows into cell; cell swells. If it is in a hypertonic solution the cell loses water by osmosis; cell shrivels & dehydrates.
7) Which solution from #6 will result in hemolysis of a red blood cell? Which would result in crenation (shrinking) of a red blood cell?
Hypotonic solution, hypertonic solution
Section 3-6 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport assist membrane passage of specific substances
1) What is carrier-mediated transport? What is vesicular transport?
Carrier-mediated transport is when integral proteins bind specific ions or organic substrates & carry them across the plasma membrane; facilitated diffusion (passive), active transport (primary active transport & secondary active transport). Vesicular transport is when the traffic of materiels in and out of the cell takes place in vesicles, also known as bulk transport.
2) What is the difference between symport (cotransport) and antiport (countertransport)? (Remember: symport moves substances in the same direction and antiport moves substances in the opposite direction)
In symport, the common carrier proteins transport two different molecules or ions through a membrane in the same direction, either in or out of the cell. In antiport they transport the molecules in opposite directions.
3) What is facilitated diffusion? Is it an active or passive process?
Facilitated diffusion is substances can be passively transported across the membrane by carrier proteins
4) The sodium-potassium exchange pump uses primary active transport. For each ATP that is hydrolyzed to ADP how many sodium ions are moved? Are they moved into or out of the cell? How many potassium ions are moved? Are they moved into or out of the cell? Note: You will learn about the importance of the sodium-potassium exchange pump later this semester when we learn about a physiological process call an action potential.
5) What is the difference between pinocytosis and phagocytosis?
Pinocytosis is an active process that is known as cell drinking. It is the formation of endosomes filled with extracellular fluid. Phagocytosis is an active process that is known as cell eating. It produces endosomes containing solid objects.
6) What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?
endocytosis brings substances into a cell (endo enter), while exocytosis releases substances from the cell (exo exit)
Section 3-7 The membrane potential of a cell results from the unequal distribution of positive and negative charges across a plasma membrane
1) What is the unit of measurement used to express the potential difference across the cell membrane?
Volts (V)
Section 3-8 Stages of the cell life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis
1) What occurs during the S phase of interphase?
DNA replication
2) What enzyme is used during DNA replication that links nucleotides using covalent bonding?
helicase
3) What occurs during cytokinesis?
The division of cytoplasm
Section 3-9 Several factors regulate the cell life cycle
1) What is the function of MPF (M-phase promoting factor; also known as maturation-promoting
Factor)?
When the cyclin level is high enough MPF is released into the cytoplasm and mitosis begins
Section 3-10 Abnormal cell growth and division characterize tumors and cancers
1) What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?
A benign tumor is not harmful and will just stay as is in the body without growing or causing issues. A malignant tumor is cancerous and will continue to grow and harm the body.
2) What is an oncogene?
A modified gene in the body that is affected by cancer
3) What is a carcinogen?
Something that can potentially be cancer-causing
4) Define metastasis.
The spread of cancer to other areas of the body
Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization Study Guide
Section 4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
Section 4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines internal surfaces, and serves other essential functions
1) Using Figure 4.1 An Orientation to the Body Tissues, what are the special function/s of epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues.
Epithelial tissues cover exposed surfaces, lines internal pathways and chambers, and produce glandular secretions. Connective tissues fill internal spaces, provide structural support, and stores energy. Muscular tissue contracts to produce movement. Nervous tissues propagate electrical impulses and carries information.
2) One characteristic of epithelial tissue is polarity. What is polarity?
Polarity is the presence of structural and functional differences between the exposed and attached surfaces. The functional polarity is also evident in the uneven distribution of organelles between the exposed surface and basement membrane.
3) One of epithelial tissue’s characteristics is avascularity. What does that mean?
They lack blood vessels
4) Epithelial tissue has apical and basal surfaces which account for its polarity. Which surface is exposed to the external or internal environment? Which surface is where cells attach to underlying cells or tissues?
Apical surfaces are exposed and basal surfaces are attached
5) What is the function of microvilli on epithelial surfaces and where would you find them in the body? What is the function of cilia on epithelial surfaces and where would you find them in the body?
Microvilli increase the surface area of epithelial surfaces to increase absorption and transport substances. In the body, you would find them in the digestive system. Cilia moves substances over the epithelial surface. In the body, you would find them in the respiratory system moving mucous up and out of the body.
6) What are cell junctions?
Cell junctions are specialized areas of the plasma membrane that attach a cell to another cell or to extracellular materials
7) What is the functional difference between gap junctions and tight junctions?
Gap junctions are when cells are held together by transmembrane proteins called conexxons. Tight junctions are when cells are held together by membrane proteins
8) What are desmosomes?
They are strong interconnections that can resist stretching and twisting by linking opposing plasma membranes. There are two types: spot (small discs connected to bands of intermediate filaments) and hemi (resembles like half a spot desmosome)
Section 4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the classification of epithelia
1) Use Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelium to answer the following: Describe epithelial cell shapes and layers for the six epithelial classifications. Note: Remember that structure gives clues to help you determine function. For example, squamous cells are thin and flat. Simple squamous epithelium describes one layer of thin, flat cells. Due to the shape of the cells and having a single layer, this type of epithelium wouldn’t be able to provide protection. Think of tissue paper—it rips easily, so simple squamous epithelium can be damaged easily. Therefore, it is located in areas that are protected from abrasion. The thin nature of the tissue allows for absorption and secretion. It is easier for substances to diffuse
through something very thin compared to something that is thick.
2) What classification of epithelium is thin and fragile, and is characteristic of regions where secretion and absorption occur?
Simple squamous epithelium
3) Alveoli are lung structures where gas exchange occurs. What type of epithelium would likely comprise alveoli?
Simple squamous epithelium
4) What is the function of stratified squamous epithelium? (Hint: use the information in Figure 4.4b)
It provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack
5) What is the general function of simple cuboidal cells?
They make up glands and line portions of the kidney
6) Which type of epithelium tolerates repeated cycles of stretching without damage? Where would you find this in the body?
The transitional epithelium and it can be found in regions of the urinary system
7) What is the general function of simple columnar epithelium?
Secretion, excretion, and absorption
8) Why is pseudostratified columnar epithelium not truly stratified?
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium have cilia when truly stratified tissues dont
9) What is the general function of stratified columnar epithelium?
In the stomach and large intestine the secretions of simple columnar epithelia protect against chemical stresses
10) Define gland.
A gland is an organ that makes one or more substances, such as hormones or milk
11) What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands? Note: the prefixes endo- and exo- will help you differentiate between the two.
Endocrine glands bring in substances while exocrine glands excrete waste from the body
12) What substance is produced by goblet cells?
mucins
13) Briefly describe merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine secretions.
Note: To remember holocrine secretions, “holes” burst open the cell and secretions are released.
Merocrine secretions is when the cell ejects materials from secretory vesicles through exocytosis. Apocrine secretions is when the cell loses cytoplasm as well as the secretory product. Merocrine and apocrine secretions leave a cell relatively intact and able to continue secreting. Holocrine secretions destroy the gland cell, a superficial cell in a stratified glandular epithelium becomes packed with secretory vesicles then bursts, releasing the secretion but killing the cell.
Section 4-4 Connective tissue has varied roles in the body that reflect the physical properties of its three main types
1) List the three basic components of all connective tissue.
Cells, ground substance, and fibers
2) Which of the three basic components listed above comprise the connective tissue matrix?
Ground substance
Section 4-5 Connective tissue proper includes loose connective tissues that fill internal spaces and dense connective tissues that contribute to the internal framework of the body
1) Briefly describe the function/importance of the following cells found in connective tissue proper:
Fibroblasts, mesenchymal cells, melanocytes, macrophages, mast cells, and lymphocytes.
Fibroblasts are always present in connective tissue and they secrete hyaluronan and proteins. Mesenchymal cells are stem cells present in many connective tissues that respond to local injury or infection. Melanocytes synthesize and store melanin, which gives tissues a dark color. Macrophages engulf damaged cells or pathogens that enter the tissue. Mast cells circulate in the blood in an immature form before they migrate to other vascularized tissues. Lymphocytes produce antibodies.
2) List three types of connective tissue fibers. What cell produces these fibers?
Collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers. They are produced by fibroblasts
3) Briefly describe ground substance. What important function does its viscosity perform?
Ground substance fills the spaces between cells and surrounds connective tissue fibers. Its viscosity slows the spread of pathogens and makes them easier for phagocytes to catch.
4) What is the general function of loose connective tissue?
They are the packing materials of the body, they fill spaces between organs, cushion and stabilize specialized cells in many organs, and support epithelia
5) List three types of loose connective tissue found in adults.
Areolar tissue, adipose tissue, and reticular tissue in adults
6) What is mesenchyme and where is it found?
Stem cells that are found in many connective tissue, they respond to local injury or infection
7) What is brown fat? What function does it serve for infants?
Brown fat is adipose tissue in infants and children and it circulates heat very quickly around the body
8) What is the general function of reticular tissue?
They support the functional cells of the liver, kidney, and spleen
9) What type of fibers dominate dense connective tissue?
Collagen fibers
10) List three types of dense regular connective tissue.
Tendons, ligaments, and aponeurosis
11) Which kind of connective tissue form capsules that surround organs such as the liver, kidneys, and spleen?
Dense irregular connective tissue
12) Define fasciae.
Layers of connective tissue
Section 4-6 Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues that transport cells and dissolved materials
1) Name two examples of fluid connective tissue.
Blood and lymph
2) What is the watery matrix of blood called?
plasma
3) Name three types of formed elements in the blood.
Platelets, white blood cells, and white blood cells
4) What cells monitor lymph for signs of injury or infection?
Lymphocytes
Section 4-7 The supporting connective tissues cartilage and bone provide a strong framework
Note: The root word “chondros-” means cartilage, so any word that contains “chondros-” or “chondro-” refers to some aspect of cartilage.
1) Cartilage is avascular. What process is used for exchange of nutrients and waste products in cartilage? Due to its avascularity, how does it affect its repair if damaged?
Diffusion is used for the exchange of nutrients and waste in cartilage. If damaged, it repairs poorly because blood vessels do not grow into cartilage
2) List three types of cartilage. Which type is the most abundant in the body?
The 3 types of cartilage are hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage. Hyaline is the most abundant in the body.
3) What is the difference between interstitial and appositional cartilage growth?
Note: The root word “osteo-” means bone, so any word that has contains “osteo-” refers to some aspect of bone.
Interstitial growth contributes more to the mass of adult cartilage. Appositional growth may occur in unusual circumstances, such as after the cartilage has been damaged or excessively stimulated.
4) What unique properties of bone make it highly resistant to shattering?
Note: we will go more in-depth with bone and bone structure in Chapter 6
The presence of minerals surrounding the collagen fibers produces a strong, somewhat flexible combination
Section 4-8 Tissue membranes made from epithelia and connective tissue make up four types of physical barriers
1) List four types of tissue membranes, briefly describe their structure and function.
Mucous membranes are coated with the secretions of mucous glands. These membranes line most of the digestice tract and portions of the urinary and reproductive tracts. Serous membranes line the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities. Cutaneous membranes cover the outer surface of the body, also known as skin. Synovial membranes line joint cavities and produce synovial fluid within the joint.
Section 4-9 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
1) List three types of muscle tissue. Describe how each would look if you were observing them under a microscope.
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Pictures are in order of list
2) Where would you find each type of muscle tissue?
Skeletal tissue is found combined with connective tissues and neural tissue in skeletal muscles. Cardiac tissue is found in the heart. Smooth tissue is found in the walls of blood vessels and in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive organs.
3) Which muscle tissue is under voluntary control? Which are under involuntary control?
Skeletal tissue is under voluntary control and cardiac tissue is under involuntary control
4) Which muscle tissues have striations?
Skeletal tissue
5) Which muscle tissue type contains intercalated discs?
Cardiac tissue
Section 4-10 Nerve tissue responds to stimuli and propagates electrical impulses throughout the body
1) Which basic neuronal cell type constitutes some of the longest cells in your body?
Neurons
2) Which basic type of neuronal cell provides support and repair of neural tissue as well as supplies nutrients to nerve fibers?
Neuroglia
Section 4-11 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration
1) What is the purpose of inflammation (inflammatory response)?
It isolates the injured area while damaged cells, tissue components, and any dangerous microorganisms are cleaned up
2) Define regeneration.
Epithelia and smooth muscle tissue usually regenerate well but skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues and nervous tissues regenerate relatively poorly.
3) Define necrosis.
The tissue destruction that takes place after cells have been damaged or killed
4) Define pus.
A collection of debris, fluid, dead and dying cells, and necrotic tissue components
5) Define abscess.
An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space