Rise of the Atlantic World

Interactions Between Continents

• European nations begin to engage in overseas explorations and the establishment of colonies, leading to significant social, economic, and political transformations. The rise of exploration indirectly contributes to the emergence of the African slave trade as Europeans sought labor for their new colonies.

The Renaissance

• A transformative period in Europe from the 15th to the 17th centuries known as the Renaissance, defined as a "rebirth" of classical European literature, art, science, and philosophy. This period marked major changes in thought and cultural expression, leading to new ideas and advancements in various fields such as astronomy, literature, and the arts.

• Key figures include Leonardo da Vinci, noted for masterpieces like the Last Supper and Mona Lisa, as well as contributions to various fields including botany, anatomy, engineering, astronomy, and concepts of flying machines, symbolizing the interdisciplinary spirit of the Renaissance.

Economic Changes

• Rise of Joint Stock Companies: Emergence of companies pooling capital from multiple investors for large-scale exploration and trade initiatives, notably in the Netherlands and England. Investors sought profitable returns, diversifying economies beyond traditional church and monarchy-backed ventures.

• Decline of the Feudal System: The Renaissance accelerated the decline of feudalism, leading to increased population mobility and growing class distinctions. Increased loyalty shifts as serfs disaffiliated from manorial systems led to a significant increase in landless lower classes.

• Population growth in England dramatically increased from 2.5 million in 1500 to over 5 million by 1620, raising concerns about labor supply and resources among the upper classes, and contributing to social shifts and emerging capitalist structures.

Religious Changes

• Religious upheaval begins prior to the Renaissance, marked by the Reconquista, a campaign by the Spanish monarchy to expel the Moors (Muslim occupants) from the Iberian Peninsula, which was completed in 1485. This campaign resulted in forced conversions, with many Jews facing conversion or execution during the Spanish Inquisition, exacerbating religious tensions in the continent.

• Protestant Reformation: Initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 after gaining prominence as a Catholic priest in Germany, Luther criticized corrupt practices like selling indulgences. He authored the 95 Theses, outlining grievances against the church, leading to his excommunication in 1521 and the establishment of the Lutheran Church, marking the birth of Protestantism. Luther's ideas gained traction, empowering a wave of reform which questioned church authority.

• Influence of John Calvin introduced the concept of Calvinism emphasizing predestination and challenging Catholic doctrine regarding salvation, advocating for a reformed understanding of faith.

• The Catholic Counter-Reformation: In response to Protestant criticism, the Catholic Church undertook reforms aimed at addressing corruption, such as discontinuing the sale of indulgences while reaffirming traditional teachings and preserving its authority through the Council of Trent.

• English Reformation: Triggered by King Henry VIII's personal dispute regarding divorce, leading to the establishment of the Church of England in the 1530s. This act of separation from Papal authority resulted in significant religious and political shifts, as power transitioned among his heirs—Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I—influencing religious stability and furthering fluctuation between Protestantism and Catholicism, leading to persecution of dissenting religious groups.

Establishment of the African Slave Trade

• Introduction of slavery, initially driven by Portuguese traders who incentivized West African kingdoms to trade gold for enslaved Africans, marking the transition to chattel slavery based on race and systematic dehumanization.

• Christopher Columbus, inspired by Portuguese navigation efforts, was funded by Spain and mistakenly landed in the Bahamas in 1492 while seeking a route to Asia, marking the beginning of European colonization in the Americas. He initially perceived the native Tainos as inferior and engaged in brutal treatment, including forced slavery.

• Conquistadors: Explorers like Hernan Cortes sought fortune and fame leading aggressive conquests; Cortes' encounter with the Aztecs culminated in their downfall, exacerbated by disease outbreaks and strategic alliances with native enemies, illustrating the violent implications of cultural misunderstandings.

Native American Experiences in Europe

• Interactions were not one-directional; thousands of Native Americans traveled to Europe for various purposes, including slavery, diplomacy, or exploration-driven curiosity. Some were regarded as cultural ambassadors or curiosities, leading to mixed cultural exchanges across continents and influencing perceptions and attitudes toward indigenous peoples.