Industrial Revolution: the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing

Agricultural Revolution: the unprecedented increase in agricultural production in Britain between the mid-17th and late 19th centuries, leading to crop rotation, selective breeding, enclosure, and the expansion of infrastructure

Cottage Industry: home-based system of manufacturing of the 18th and 19th centuries (e.g leather manufacturing, silk weaving, cotton weaving, small-scale food processing, etc.)

Interchangeable Parts: identical components that can be substituted for one another, allowing for relatively unskilled workers to produce large numbers of firearms quickly and at a lower cost in the 19th century

Eli Whitney: American inventor (1765-1825) that invented the cotton gin and the technique of using machine tools to produce large quantities of interchangeable parts

Capital: theoretical work by Karl Marx that examines capitalism as a historical epoch and a mode of production, and sought to trace its origins, development, and decline; argued that once the capitalist system collapses, and the working class inherits economic and political power.

Enclosure Movement: movement that ended the traditional rights on common land formerly held in the open field system and restricted the use of land to the owner; deprived many of access to land or left farmers with plots too small and of poor quality, increasing numbers of workers had no choice but to migrate to cities and work in factories.

Trans-Siberian Railroad: world’s longest railroad that connected both ends of Russia and was built to supply Siberia and deliver raw materials to industries west of the Urals

James Watt: Scottish inventor that developed the steam engine in 1765

Second Industrial Revolution: era that witnessed the rapid advancement and expansion in the creation of electricity, petroleum, chemicals and steel, ultimately helping fuel production.

Alexander Graham Bell: Scottish-Canadian inventor most known for inventing the telephone

Gugliemo Marconi: Italian inventor and engineer most famous for creating the first successful long-distance wireless telegraph and for broadcasting the first transatlantic radio signal

Transcontinental Railroad: transcontinental route, completed in 1869, running from the east and west coasts of the United States

Zaibatsu: financial cliques in 19th century Japan, or diversified family enterprises, that rose to prominence in the Meiji Era; similar to cartels or trusts but are usually organized around a single family.

Monopoly: the exclusive possession or control of the supply of or trade in a commodity or service.

Adam Smith: Scottish philosopher that said laws of supply and demand determine what happens in the marketplace; introduced the concept that free trade would benefit individuals and society as a whole.

• political theory: advocated a form of libertarianism where the 'rule of law' was significant, but extended only to the rigorous protection of private property and a few regulations on banks and lending.

Capitalism: advocated a form of libertarianism where the 'rule of law' was significant, but extended only to the rigorous protection of private property and a few regulations on banks and lending.

Communist Manifesto: Karl Marx and Frederick Engels’ work that argued a socialist revolution would result in a “dictatorship of the proletariat,” which would abolish private property and destroy capitalist order. Thus socialism would lead to a fair, just and egalitarian society infinitely more humane than the capitalist order.

Urbanization: The movement of populations from rural to urban areas

Luddites: early 19th century artisans who were opposed to industrialization and were most known for destroying textile machines that were displacing them; had riots that put down the introduction of new machinery in the wool industry

Bourgeoisie: middle class in modern industrial society that originated in the feudal period as the class of urbanites who grew prosperous thanks to international commerce and colonization; known by Karl Marx as the capitalist class who own most of society’s wealth and means of production

Proletariat: urban working class in a modern industrial society; known collectively by Marx as the wageworkers who had only their labor to sell

Trade unions/unionization: labor unions formed in Britain in the 18th century to protect workers from unnecessary risks using dangerous machines, unhealthy working conditions, and excessive hours of work, leading to better communication between workers and the employers