Unit 1-2

Unit 1

Powerpoints

• Importance of understanding statistics:

  1. Evaluate and understand research, reducing intimidation.

  2. Avoid deception from ads, government reports, surveys, etc.

Two Types of Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics:

  • Involves one variable, describes data.

• Inferential Statistics:

  • Involves two variables, explains data meaning.

Descriptive Statistics

One Variable Measures

• Frequency Distribution:

  • How frequently a certain score occurs.

• Central Tendency:

  • Measures the middle score using:

  1. Mean: Average (sensitive to extremes).

  2. Median: Middle score.

  3. Mode: Most frequently occurring score.

• Variance:

  • Measures score dispersion.

Dispersion Measures

1. Range:

   • Distance between highest and lowest scores (sensitive to extremes).

2. Standard Deviation:

   • Average difference between each score and the mean.

Distribution Shapes

• Skewness Types:

  • No Skewness (Symmetrical)

  • Positive Skewness (Right-modal)

  • Negative Skewness (Left-modal)

• Bimodal Distributions:

  • Two most frequently occurring scores.

Problems with One Variable Research

• Challenges:

  • Unrepresentative samples.

  • Experimenter bias (double-blind helpful).

  • Response and situational bias.

  • Invalid scores impacting mean and range.

  • Nonstandard conditions affecting reliability.

Two Variable Statistics

• Correlation:

  • Indicates the relationship between two variables.

• Correlation Coefficient (r):

  • Measures how much two variables are related.

Examples of Correlation

• Positive: Test scores and hours studying.

• Negative: Attendance and GPA.

Correlation Data Introduction

• Plot data points on scatterplot; analyze direction and strength of correlation.

• Example data: GPA vs. Time on TikTok.

Illusory Correlations

• Give appearance of relationship between unrelated items.

• Recognize curvilinear trends and restricted ranges.

• Important to note: Correlation does NOT imply causation.

Inferential Statistics

• Tests reliability of research findings, inferring characteristics from small samples to larger populations.

Criteria for Inference

1. Sample must be large.

2. Sample must be representative.

3. Low variability in groups within the sample.

Statistical Significance

• Large and reliable differences indicate results are not due to chance.

• Statistically significant if the probability (p) of chance occurrence is less than 5% (p < .05).

Effect Size

• Measures practical significance of findings.

• Large effect size indicates significant impact; small size suggests limited application.

Example of Effect Size

• Study comparing weight loss methods shows negligible practical difference despite statistical significance.

Questions

1. Apply psychological perspective, theories concepts, and research findings to a scenario

   1. Explain how psychological perspectives, theories, concepts or research findings apply to a scenario

   2. Compare and contrast how perspectives or theories explain behavior and mental processes

   3. Draw logical and objective conclusions about behavior and mental processes

2. Explain how cultural norms, expectations, and circumstances as well as cognitive biases apply to behavior and mental processes

   1. Explain how cultural norms, expectations, and circumstances apply to a scenario

      1. Cultural norms

   2. Explain how cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, hindsight bias, and overconfidence apply to a scenario

      1. Cognitive biases

      2. Confirmation bias

      3. Hindsight bias

      4. Overconfidence

   3. Explain the implications of applying psychological concepts or theories in inappropriate or discriminatory ways

3. Determine the type of research design(s) used in a given study

   1. Determine whether a study is using experimental or non-experimental methodologies

      1. Experimental methodology

      2. Non-experimental methodologies

         1. Case study

         2. Correlation

         3. Meta-analysis

         4. Naturalistic observation

4. Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in experimental methodology

   1. Identify hypothesis and its accuracy

      1. Hypothesis

      2. Falsifiability

   2. Identify operational definitions of variables and their effectiveness

      1. Operational definitions

      2. Replication

   3. Identify the research variables in a research scenario

      1. Independent variable

      2. Dependent variables

      3. Confounding variable

   4. Identify the participants who make up the sample from the population in a research scenario

      1. Participant

      2. Sample

      3. Population

   5. Determine if the sample is representative of the population and the procedure for the sampling

      1. Representative sample

      2. Random sampling

      3. Convenience sampling

5. Evaluate the appropriate use of research design elements in experimental methodology

   1. Evaluate if the sampling procedure has bias

      1. Sampling bias

   2. Determine if the sampling procedure allows for the generalization of the results

      1. Generalizability

   3. Identify the research groups, how those groups were created, and if a placebo was used

      1. Experimental group

      2. Control group

      3. Placebo effect

   4. Determine how the study used procedures to limit confounding variables, such as bias

      1. Single-blind procedure

      2. Double-blind procedure

      3. Experimenter bias

      4. Social desirability bias

   5. Determine if the qualitative or quantitative measurements implemented in the experimental research

      1. Qualitative research

         1. Structured interviews

      2. Quantitative research

         1. Likert scales

   6. Describe the impact of the representation of participants in research and its outcomes

   7. Explain how research conclusions change with peer review and replication

      1. Peer review

      2. Replication

6. Evaluate whether a psychological research scenario followed appropriate ethical procedures

   1. Explain the importance of institutional review for research

      1. Institutional review

   2. Determine whether proper informed consent and/or informed assent was used in a research scenario

      1. Informed consent

      2. Informed assent

   3. Determine whether researchers took steps to protect participants from harm

      1. Protection from harm

   4. Determine whether researchers kept participant information confidential and/or anonymous

      1. Confidentiality

   5. Determine whether deception was used in the research

      1. Deception

   6. Determine whether researchers used proper debriefing techniques with participants at the concussion of the research

      1. Debriefing

7. Identify psychology-related concepts in descriptions or representations of data

   1. Identify variables in descriptions or representations of data

   2. Identify statistical and psychological consent(s) depicted in a table, graph, chart or figure

8. Calculate and interpret measures of central tendency, variation and percentile rank in a given data set

   1. Calculate mean, median, mode and range from a set of data

      1. Mean

      2. Median

      3. Mode

      4. Range

   2. Explain the elements of the normal curve and how to interpret skewness in a graph and how to interpret a bimodal distribution

      

      1. Normal curve

      2. Distributions

      3. Skewness

         1. Negative skew

         2. Positive skew

      4. Bimodal curve

   3. Interpret mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation, and percentile rank from a set of data

      1. Standard deviation

      2. Percentile rank

   4. Explain how regression toward the mean occurs

      1. Regression toward the mean

9. Interpret quantitative or qualitative inferential data from a given table, graph, chart, figure or diagram

   1. Describe trends in and relations between variables depicted in data presented

      1. Correlational data

      2. Scatterplot

      3. Correlation coefficient

   2. Interpret the significance of results from research

      1. Effect size

      2. Statistical significance

10. Provide reasoning that is grounded in scientifically derived evidence to support, refute or modify an established or provided claim, policy or norm

    1. Identify reasoning that supports, refutes or modifies an established or provided claim, policy or norm

    2. Use scientifically derived evidence to explain nuances of claims, policies or norms

    3. Using scientifically derived evidence to explain how or why a claim, policy or norm is or is not effective.

The importance of understanding statistics in evaluating research, avoiding deception, and applying psychological concepts. It emphasizes the distinctions between descriptive and inferential statistics, the challenges of conducting research, and the significance of sampling and ethical considerations in psychological studies.

Unit 2

Powerpoints

Interaction of Heredity and Environment

• Learning Objective: Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and mental processes.

Nurture vs. Nature

• Nature: Genetics, parents, biology, hormones, innate internal processes.

• Nurture: Friends, schools, socioeconomic factors, societal influences.

• Theoretical Perspectives:

  • Biological Theories: Focus on genetic and hormonal drives influencing behavior.

  • Psychological Theories: Include psychoanalytic, cognitive, humanistic, and behaviorist frameworks.

  • Behavioral Learning: All behavior is learned through interactions with the environment.

Evolutionary Perspective

• Exploration of how natural selection impacts behaviors and mental processes.

• Inherited Traits: Traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on.

  • Examples: Physical attributes that signify fitness (e.g., youthfulness in women).

Sexual Behavior Differences

• Attraction Dynamics:

  • Men are typically drawn to women who exhibit signs of fertility, leading women to focus on appearance.

  • Women tend to prefer men who exhibit health, maturity, and resources; men often seek to demonstrate status.

Criticisms of Evolutionary Perspective

• Explanations often rationalize outcomes post hoc, lacking predictive power.

• Many traits and behaviors are not rigidly hardwired and can adapt based on cultural norms and learning.

• Cultural expectations can evolve, leading to discriminatory practices like eugenics.

Eugenics Movement

• Emerged in the early 20th century, aiming to eliminate hereditary diseases and 'unfit' traits.

Behavior Genetics

• Purpose: To study the influence of genetics vs. environment on behavior.

• Importance of twin studies:

  • Identical Twins: Provide insight into genetic factors.

  • Fraternal Twins: Offer perspective on environmental influences.

Adoption Studies

• Findings indicate a moderate correlation in verbal abilities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, as well as with biological parents.

Temperament

• Definition: Enduring emotional dispositions that define personal interaction.

• Influenced more by genetics than environment. High-strung infants often remain reactive as adults.

• Activity: Compare temperament survey findings with classmates.

Environmental Influences

• The prenatal environment can affect later development through exposure to toxins, nutrition, and placental conditions.

Neurobiology

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Function: Processes information and coordinates activity throughout the body.

• Components:

  • Brain: Controls thoughts, emotions, and movement.

  • Spinal Cord: Transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Function: Connects the CNS to the limbs and organs, serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body.

• Components:

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary body functions (heart rate, digestion).

    • Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for 'fight or flight' response during stress.

    • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Conserves energy and restores the body to a state of calm.

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information to the CNS.

• Everything psychological is simultaneously biological (Emerson Pugh).

• Key Areas of Study:

  • Parts and functions of the nervous system: Neurons, brain structures, central and peripheral systems.

  • Brain imaging techniques and their applications.

  • Role of the endocrine system and key hormones.

The Neuron

• 100 billion neurons in the brain, transmits impulses at speeds of 1-400 mph. Neurotransmitters cross synapses in microseconds.

• Structure of Neurons:

  • Dendrites: Receive messages.

  • Axon: Pass messages to other cells, muscles, or glands.

  • Myelin Sheath: Insulates axons; speeds up neural impulses.

Types of Neurons**

• Sensory Neurons: Carry messages from the body to the CNS.

• Interneurons: Connect neurons within the CNS.

• Motor Neurons: Transmit impulses to muscles.

Reflex Arc

• Information travels from skin receptors to the spinal cord, enabling quick responses before processing by the brain.

Synaptic Transmission

• Process: Action potentials trigger neurotransmitter release into synaptic gaps, allowing signals to be transmitted between neurons via receptor sites.

Neurotransmitters and Hormones

• Excitatory:

  • increases the likelihood of firing an action potential in other neurons by releasing neurotransmitters like glutamate, which depolarize the receiving neuron's membrane.

• Inhibitory

  • decreases the likelihood of firing an action potential in neighboring neurons by hyper-polarizing their membranes. Examples include GABA and glycine, which help regulate neuronal excitability and prevent overactivity in the nervous system.

Sleep and Circadian Rhythms

• Sleep is a periodic, natural loss of consciousness.

• Circadian Rhythm: Our biological clock regulates sleep-wake cycles, influenced by light.

Stages of Sleep

• NREM and REM sleep are characterized by different brain waves on EEG, significant for physical restoration and memory consolidation.

Sleep Disorders

• Common Disorders:

  • Insomnia: Ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep.

  • Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks regardless of timing.

  • Sleep Apnea: Intermittent cessation of breathing during sleep.

  • Sleepwalking: Repeated episodes of complex behaviors during sleep.

Theories of Sleep

• Restoration Theory: Sleep allows recovery from fatigue.

• Memory Consolidation Theory: Sleep is integral for memory processing and learning.

Improving Sleep Hygiene

• Recommendations include consistent sleep schedules, limited screen time, regular exercise, and managing stress for better sleep quality.

Questions

1. Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and mental processes

   1. Heredity and environmental factors interact to shape behavior and mental processes

      1. Heredity

      2. Environmental factors

      3. Nature

      4. Nurture

   2. The evolutionary perspective

      1. Evolutionary Perspective

      2. Natural selection

      3. Eugenics

   3. Research on the effects of genes on individual behavior and mental processes

      1. Twin studies

      2. Family studies

      3. Adoption studies

2. Differentiate among the subsystems of the human nervous system and their functions

   

   1. The central nervous system

      1. Central nervous system

   2. The peripheral nervous system

      1. Peripheral nervous system

      2. Autonomic nervous system

      3. Parasympathetic nervous system

      4. Sympathetic nervous system

      5. Somatic nervous system

3. Explain how the structures and functions of typical neurons in the central nervous system affect behavior and mental processes

   

   1. Types of neural cells

      1. Neurons

      2. Glial cells

   2. Interaction of the central and peripheral nervous system

      1. Reflex arc

      2. Sensory neurons

      3. Motor neurons

      4. Interneurons

4. Explain how the basic process of neural transmission is related to behavior and mental processes

   

   1. Process of neural transmission

      1. all or nothing principal

      2. Depolarization

      3. Refractory period

      4. Resting potential

      5. Re-uptake

      6. Threshold

      7. Multiple sclerosis

      8. Myasthenia gravis

   2. Impact of the location and functions of neurotransmitters on behavior and mental processes

      1. neurotransmitter

      2. Excitory

      3. Inhibitory

      4. Dopamine

      5. Serotonin

      6. Norepinephrine

      7. Glutamate

      8. GABA

      9. Endorphins

      10. Substance P

      11. Acetylcholine

   3. Impact of the location and function of hormones on behavior and mental processes

      1. Adrenaline

      2. Leptin

      3. Ghrelin

      4. Melatonin

      5. Oxytocin

5. Explain how psychoactive drugs affect behavior and mental processes

   1. Influence of psychoactive drugs on neurotransmitter function

      1. Antagonist

      2. Agonist

      3. Reuptake inhibitors

   2. Psychological and physiological effects of psychoactive drugs

      1. Stimulants

         1. Caffeine

         2. Cocaine

      2. Depressants

         1. Alcohol

      3. Hallucinogens

         1. Marijuana

      4. Opioids

         1. Heroin

   3. Psychoactive drug use can lead to tolerance and/or addiction

      1. Tolerance

      2. Addiction

      3. Withdrawal

6. Explain how the structures and functions of the brain apply to behavior and mental processes

   

   1. Functions of the brain stem

      1. Brain stem

      2. Medulla

   2. Functions of the reticular activating system in the brains reward center

      1. Reticular activating system

      2. Reward center

   3. Function of the cerebellum

      1. Cerebellum

   4. Structure and function of the cerebral cortex, the Olympic system, corpus callosum, and the lobes of the cortex

      1. Cerebral cortex

      2. Limbic system

         1. Thalamus

         2. Hypothalamus

         3. Pituitary gland

         4. Hippocampus

         5. Amygdala

      3. Corpus Callossum

      4. Occipital lobe

      5. Temporal lobe

      6. Parietal lobe

      7. Frontal lobe

   5. Split brain research reveals possible hemisphere specialization in different activities and functions

      1. Broca’s area

      2. Wernicke’s Area

      3. Aphasia

      4. Split-brain research

         1. Contralateral hemispheric organization

   6. Role of brain plasticity

      1. Brain plasticity

   7. Research to promote understanding functioning of different structure and the brain as a whole

      1. EEG

      2. fMRI

      3. Case studies

      4. Surgical procedures

         1. Lesioning

7. Explain how the sleep/wake cycle, affects behavior and mental processes throughout the day and night

   1. Levels of consciousness and their impact on awareness

      1. Consciousness

      2. Sleep

      3. Wakefulness

   2. Sleep/wake cycle

      1. Circadian rhythm

      2. Jet lag

      3. Shift work

   3. The stages of sleep are identified by their specific EEG patterns

      1. EEG

      2. NREM

      3. Hypnogogic sensations

      4. REM

      5. REM Rebound

   4. Theories regarding the structure and function of dreams

      1. Activation synthesis

      2. Consolidation theory

   5. Current theories about why sleep occurs

      1. Memory consolidation

      2. Restoration

   6. Impact and treatment of sleep disorders

      1. Insomnia

      2. Narcolepsy

      3. REM sleep behavior disorder

      4. Sleep apnea

      5. Somnambulism

   Heredity and environmental factors work together to shape behavior and mental processes, where genetic influences interact with social and cultural factors to produce individual differences. Neurotransmitters and hormones play significant roles in influencing behavior, and psychoactive drugs can alter their function, potentially leading to tolerance and addiction. The structures and functions of the human brain, including various neural cells and subsystems of the nervous system, are essential for understanding how mental processes occur and how factors such as sleep cycles affect overall psychological functioning.

Unit 3-4

Unit 3

Powerpoints

Vision: The human vision experience includes physical mechanics and brain processing.

Eye Anatomy: Eyes maintain size throughout life; noses and ears continue to grow. Poor vision in babies improves with time.

Perception of Sight: The brain processes visual information; eyes capture light. Humans detect a limited part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Light Properties:

• Wavelength: Distance between wave peaks (visible light spectrum: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).

  Amplitude: Height of wave; high amplitude = bright colors/sounds; low amplitude = dull colors/soft sounds.Key Eye Structures:

• Cornea: Protects and lets light in.

• Iris: Regulates light with distinctive colors for identification.

• Pupil: Adjustable opening controlled by light and focus.

• Lens: Changes shape to focus images.

• Retina: Contains rods and cones for light detection; converts light into neural signals.

  Cones: Detect color, primarily in the fovea; functional in bright light.

  Rods: Enable black and white/peripheral vision; functional in low light.Visual Processing: Light activates rods/cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells to transmit signals via the optic nerve to the brain. The optic chiasm intersects fibers for visual processing.Primary Visual Cortex: In the occipital lobe for initial visual input processing.Visual Deficits: Myopia (nearsightedness) vs. hyperopia (farsightedness).Color Vision Theories:

• Trichromatic Theory: Three receptors (red, green, blue).

• Opponent Process Theory: Color cells detect opposing colors, explaining afterimages.Colorblindness: Mainly red/green deficiency; impacts navigation and color tasks.Color Constancy: Familiar objects maintain color perception across lighting conditions.

Questions

Explain how the process of sensation is related to behavior and mental processes

Process of detecting information from environment (Sensation)

Sensation

Threshold

Transduction

Absolute threshold

Detection of change in stimuli or diminished sensory adaptation

Just-noticeable difference

Sensory adaptation

Weber’s law

Interaction of sensory systems

Sensory interaction

Synesthesia

Explain how the structures and functions of the visual sensory system relate to behavior and mental processes

Retina

Blindspot

Visual nerve

Retinal images

Lens accommodation

Nearsightedness

Farsightedness

Rods

Cones

Light/dark adaptation

Trichromacy theory

Opponent process theory

Fovea

Wavelengths

Afterimages

Ganglion cells

Dichromatism

Monochromatism

Prosopagnosia

Blindsight

Occipital lobe

Explain how the structures and functions of the auditory sensory system relate to behavior and mental processes

Wavelengths

Amplitudes

Place theory

Volley theory

Frequency theory

Sound localization

Aging

Conduction deafness

Sensorineural deafness

Explain how the structures and functions of chemical sensory systems relate to behavior and mental processes

Olfactory stimuli

Pheromones

Gustation

Sweet

Sour

Salty

Bitter

Umami

Oleogustus

Taste receptors

Explain how the structures and functions of the touch sensory system relate to behavior and mental processes

Touch stimuli

Warm and cold receptors

Explain how the structures and functions of the pain sensory system relate to behavior and mental processes

Gate control theory

Phantom limb sensation

Explain how the structures and functions that maintain balance and body movement relate to behavior and mental processes

Vestibular sense

Semicircular canals

Kinethesis

Explain how internal and external factors influence perception

Influence of external sensory information or internal prior expectations on perception

Bottom-up processing

Top-down processing

Internal factors that filter perceptions of the world

Schemas

Perceptual sets

External factors that filter perceptions of the world

Contexts

Experiences

Cultural experiences and expectations

Perceptual principles help explain how humans organize their perceptual world

Gestalt psychology

Closure

Figure and ground

Proximity

Similarity

Impact of internal and external processes on attention

Attention

Selective attention

Cocktail party effect

Inattention

Inattentional blindness

Change blindness

Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli

Binocular cues provide the perception of depth

Binocular cues

Retinal disparity

Convergence

Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli

Monocular cues provide the illusion of depth

Monocular Cues

Relative clarity

Relative size

Texture gradient

Linear perspective

Interposition

Illusion

Visual perceptual constancies

Constancy

Size

Shape

Color

Perception of movement

Stroboscopic effect

Autokinetic effect

Phi phenomenon

Unit 4

Powerpoints

Cognition

• Cognition involves the mental activities of thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

• Concepts categorize similar things based on central features.

• Prototypes: Best example of a category, e.g., different types of chairs.

Schemas

• Schemas are concepts that organize and interpret new information.

• Provide mental shortcuts and save time.

• Assimilation: Fitting new experiences into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Changing or creating schemas for new information.

Cognitive Processing

• Prototypes help with categorization of specific animals, e.g., house cats as cats.

Executive Functioning

• Includes working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control.

• Essential for managing daily tasks.

Problem-Solving Strategies

1. Convergent Thinking: Narrowing options to find a single solution.

2. Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple creative solutions.

Cognitive Process of Problem Solving

1. Identify the problem.

2. Generate possible solutions (algorithms; heuristics).

3. Evaluate the solutions.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

• Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.

• Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

• Overconfidence: Overestimating the accuracy of knowledge.

• Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Sticking to an invested decision despite negative outcomes.

Heuristics

• Representative Heuristic: Making judgments based on prototypes.

• Availability Heuristic: Basing decisions on the most easily recalled information.

Critical Thinking

• Involves evaluating both sides of an issue with openness to new evidence.

• Demands reasoning based on facts and evidence.

Memory

Case Studies in Memory

• AJ: 41 years old; remembers nearly every day of her life since age 11. Has "hyperthymestic syndrome," retaining autobiographical memories with extreme clarity.

  • Specific memories: Dates, phone calls, lunches, and world events.

• EP: 85 years old; suffered from memory loss due to brain infection by herpes simplex virus.

  • Memory Function: Only holds vivid childhood memories but cannot form new ones or recall anything past 1960.

  • Conditions: Retrained to the present. Lacks realization of his memory condition.

  • Description of memory: No recording of past experiences, unable to retain information beyond direct perception.

Brain Anatomy and Memory

• Hippocampus: Critical for creating long-term memories; analysis of EP shows damage in medial temporal lobes.

• Neural Connections: Memory is a pattern of connections between 100 billion neurons with trillions of synaptic connections; experiences change these connections.

• Declarative Memory: Facts and events (lost in EP and HM).

• Non-declarative Memory: Skills like riding a bike; procedures stored independently of the hippocampus.

Memory as a Function of Society

Historical Context

• Ancient Techniques: "Art of memory," developed by Simonides, utilized mental imagery to retain information.

• Shift Over Millennium: Transition to external memory via technology (e.g., books, digital storage).

Cultural Shifts

• Decreased emphasis on internal memory: Use of photographs, calendars, and digital recording devices to compensate for memory loss.

• Societal Implications: Potential consequences of relying on external tools include loss of deeper personal connections to our past.

The Burden of Memory

• AJ's Experience: Despite her extraordinary memory, she feels burdened by it; cannot let go of painful memories or past mistakes.

  • Perspective: Her memory serves as both a comfort and a torment.

Memory Loss

• Aging and Memory: The impact of Alzheimer's and cognitive impairment; relevance of ongoing research into memory-enhancing drugs.

Research and Future Outlook

• Scientific Endeavors: Exploration of drugs that target neurotransmitter glutamate to improve memory function.

• Ethical Considerations: The implications of wider availability of memory-enhancing drugs on society.

Questions

Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem solving, judgment, and decision-making

Basis of thought

Concepts

Prototypes

People form and modify frameworks for thinking

Schemas

Assimilation

Accommodation

Problem-solving strategies

Algorithms

Heuristics

Representative heuristic

Availability heuristic

Influence of prior experiences on decision-making

Mental set

Priming

Framing

Cognitive processes that hinder decision-making

Gambler’s fallacy

Sunk-cost fallacy

Cognitive process of goal-directed behaviors

Executive functions

Process of creativity

Divergent thinking

Convergent thinking

Creativity

Functional fixedness

Explain how the types, structures and processes of memory work

Differentiate memories based on process, storage and retrieval

Explicit memory

Episodic memory

Semantic memory

Implicit memory

Procedural memory

Prospective memory

Biological process for memory

Long-term potentiation

Components of the interaction between working memory and long-term memory

Working memory model

Central executive

Phonological loop

Visuospatial sketchpad

Interaction of three memory systems

Sensory memory

Iconic memory

Echoic memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Automatic processing

Effortful processing

Memory encoding

Memory storage

Memory retrieval

Three levels of memory processing

Structural

Phonemic

Semantic

Explain how different encoding processes work to get information into memory (2.4)

Influence of encoding on effective storage and retrieval

Encoding

Processes that aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory

Mnemonic devices

Method of loci

• adding vivid new details to familiar info

Chunking

Categories

Hierarchies

Processes that impact encoding and memory consolidation

Spacing effect

Massed practice

Distributed practice

Impact of the presentation of information on encoding processes

Serial position effect

Primacy effect

Recency effect

Unit 5-6

Unit 5

Powerpoints

Assessing Intelligence

• Intelligence Tests: Designed to predict a person's future performance.

  • Aptitude Tests: Assess potential capacity to learn (e.g., SAT/ACT).

  • Achievement Tests: Measure what a person has learned; examples include AP exams.

Major Intelligence Tests

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): Most widely used intelligence test; includes verbal and nonverbal subtests.

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): Similar to WAIS but tailored for children.

WAIS Sample Items

• Verbal Subtests:

  • General Information

  • Similarities

  • Arithmetic Reasoning

  • Vocabulary

  • Comprehension

  • Digit Span

• Performance Subtests:

  • Picture Completion

  • Picture Arrangement

  • Block Design

  • Object Assembly

  • Digit-Symbol Substitution

Standardization of Intelligence Tests

• Standardization: Means of defining meaningful scores by comparing with a pretested group.

• Normal Curve: Bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of many attributes; typically, most scores cluster around the average, with fewer at the extremes.

Distribution of Intelligence Scores

• Key Statistics:

  • 95% of people score within 30 points of an average score of 100.

  • 68% of scores fall within 15 points (85-115) of the average.

• Wechsler Intelligence Score: Scores above 130 may qualify for MENSA.

The Flynn Effect

• Observed increase in intelligence test scores over time.

• Notable trends in average scores across decades (1910-1990).

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Consistency of test results (e.g., alternate forms, retesting).

• Validity: Extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

  • Content Validity: Degree to which a test samples the behavior of interest.

  • Predictive Validity: Success of a test in predicting intended outcomes (e.g., SAT scores predicting college grades).

Dynamics of Intelligence

• Mental Retardation: Defined as an intelligence score below 70, with varying levels of adaptability.

• Common Conditions:

  • Down syndrome

  • Tay Sachs Disease

  • PKU (Phenylketonuria)

Degrees of Mental Retardation

• Mild: IQ 50-70 (85% of cases); can learn up to sixth-grade levels.

• Moderate: IQ 35-49 (10%); can achieve second-grade skills.

• Severe: IQ 20-34 (3-4%); can learn simple tasks under supervision.

• Profound: IQ below 20 (1-2%); requires constant support.

Creativity in Intelligence

• Creativity: Ability to generate novel and valuable ideas, correlating modestly with intelligence test performance.

• Components of Creativity:

  • Expertise

  • Imaginative thinking skills

  • Venturesome personality

  • Intrinsic motivation

  • Creative environment

Measuring Creativity

• Torrance Creativity Test: 5 challenges designed to evaluate creative thinking.

  • Alternative Uses: Divergent thinking test for multiple uses of an object.

  • Incomplete Figures: Participants complete images creatively.

  • Riddles: Measures convergent thinking with single answers.

  • Remote Associations: Connect unrelated words creatively.

  • The Candle Problem: Tests problem-solving by challenging functional fixedness.

Nature and Nurture of Intelligence

• Genetic Influences: Intelligence scores are similar among genetically related individuals.

  • Identical twins show high correlation regardless of rearing environment.

• Heritability: Portion of variation among individuals attributed to genetics, influenced by environmental similarity.

Environmental Influences on Intelligence

• Variability in intelligence influenced by environmental factors.

• Poor versus enriched environments significantly alter intelligence test scores.

  • Examples include effects of nutrition and early childhood experiences.

Role of Education in Intelligence

• Schooling impacts cognitive performance; more time in structured education correlates with higher scores.

• Significant disparities exist in educational quality between different demographic groups.

Stereotype Threat

• Psychological phenomenon where individuals underperform due to fear of confirming negative stereotypes.

• Performance may significantly decline when individuals believe they are being judged against biased expectations.

Motivation and Achievement

• Motivation and study skills play critical roles in academic success, potentially overshadowing innate ability.

• Financial incentives have been shown to improve test scores substantially.

Perspectives on Intelligence

• Performance-Oriented Mindset: Views intelligence as fixed; leads to resignation in the face of failure.

• Mastery-Oriented Mindset: Positions intelligence as malleable; encourages persistent effort and learning as a muscle to strengthen.

Future of Education

• Changes anticipated in American education systems, with a move toward unifying standards under Common Core to address systemic inequalities.

Questions

1. Explain how modern and historical theories describe in intelligence

   1. Historical debates on how to define and measure intelligence

      1. General ability (g)

      2. Multiple abilities

2. Explain how intelligence is measured

   1. Early and modern measurements and uses of IQ

      1. Intelligence quotient (IQ)

      2. Mental age

      3. Chronological age

      4. Educational services

   2. Psychometric principles of psychological assessments, including intelligence tests

      1. Standardization

      2. Validity

         1. Constructive validity

         2. Predictive validity

      3. Reliability

         1. Test-retest reliability

         2. Split-half reliability

   3. Development of Socio-culturally responsive assessments of intelligence

      1. Socio-culturally responsive

      2. Stereotype threat

      3. Stereotype lift

3. Explain how systematic issues relate to the quantitive and qualitative uses of intelligence assessments

   1. Impact of societal factors on IQ

      1. Flynn effect

   2. Influence of biases on the interpretation of IQ scores in their relationship with other outcomes

   3. Impact of intelligence tests on access to opportunities

4. Explain how academic achievement is measured and experienced as compared to intelligence

   1. Uses of academic test

      1. Achievement test

      2. Aptitude test

   2. Impact of beliefs about intelligence on academic achievement

      1. Fixed mindset

      2. Growth mindset