AP Psych flashcards for unit 1-2

Empiricism: The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation.

Structuralism: An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.

Functionalism: A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable organisms to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Experimental psychology: The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

Behaviorism: The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Humanistic psychology: A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth.

Cognitive neuroscience: The interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Nature–nurture issue: The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and experience (nurture) in the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural selection: The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Levels of analysis: The different complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Biopsychosocial approach: An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Behavioral psychology: The scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning.

Biological psychology: The study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

Cognitive psychology: The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Evolutionary psychology: The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.

Psychodynamic psychology: A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat psychological disorders.

Social-cultural psychology: The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Psychometrics: The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Basic research: Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Developmental psychology: The study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

Educational psychology: The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality psychology: The study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social psychology: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Applied research: Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology: The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

Human factors psychology: A field of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Counseling psychology: A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical psychology: A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

Psychiatry: A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments (such as drug prescriptions) as well as psychological therapy.

Positive psychology: The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goal of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.

Community psychology: A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

Testing effect: The finding that long-term memory is enhanced when information is retrieved rather than simply reread, often through self-testing.

SQ3R: A study method incorporating five steps—Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, and Review—to improve comprehension and retention of material.

Wilhelm Wundt: Known as the "father of psychology," he established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He promoted structuralism, which aimed to break down mental processes into basic elements through introspection.

G. Stanley Hall: A student of Wundt, he was the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and established the first U.S. psychology lab at Johns Hopkins University. He contributed to developmental psychology, particularly with his research on adolescence.

William James: A pioneer of functionalism, he focused on how mental and behavioral processes help organisms adapt to their environment. He wrote The Principles of Psychology (1890), one of the most influential psychology texts.

Mary Whiton Calkins: A student of William James, she became the first female president of the APA. She was denied a Ph.D. from Harvard due to gender discrimination but contributed significantly to memory research and developed self-psychology.

Margaret Floy Washburn: The first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, she studied animal behavior and motor theory of cognition. Her book The Animal Mind (1908) was influential in comparative psychology.

Sigmund Freud: Founder of psychoanalysis, he emphasized the role of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and defense mechanisms in shaping behavior. His theories on the id, ego, and superego and the psychosexual stages of development had a lasting impact on psychology.

John B. Watson: A founder of behaviorism, he argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. He conducted the Little Albert experiment, demonstrating classical conditioning in humans.

B. F. Skinner: A leading behaviorist, he developed the concept of operant conditioning, emphasizing how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior. He designed the Skinner box to study learning in animals.

Carl Rogers: A major figure in humanistic psychology, he developed client-centered therapy, which emphasized unconditional positive regard, empathy, and the belief that individuals have the potential for self-actualization.

Ivan Pavlov: A Russian physiologist known for discovering classical conditioning through his experiments on dogs, where he demonstrated how associations between stimuli could lead to learned responses.

Jean Piaget: A pioneer in cognitive development, he proposed the four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational), which explain how children’s thinking evolves over time.

Charles Darwin: A naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, which influenced evolutionary psychology, emphasizing the adaptive functions of behavior and mental processes.

Dorothea Dix: A reformer and advocate for the humane treatment of individuals with mental illnesses. She played a significant role in the establishment of mental asylums in the U.S. during the 19th century.

Hindsight bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (“I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon).

Critical thinking: Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; it involves examining assumptions, assessing sources, evaluating evidence, and drawing conclusions.

Theory: An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational definition: A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study to define variables so that the study can be replicated.

Replication: Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to determine whether the basic findings extend to other circumstances.

Case study: A descriptive research method in which an individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic observation: A descriptive research method that involves observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling the situation.

Survey: A research method that collects self-reported data from a representative sample of people, typically through questionnaires or interviews.

Sampling bias: A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Population: The entire group from which a sample is drawn for a study.

Random sample: A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation: A measure of the extent to which two variables change together and how well one variable predicts the other.

Correlation coefficient: A statistical index (ranging from -1.0 to +1.0) that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot: A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, where each point represents the values of two variables on an x-y axis.

Illusory correlation: The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship actually exists.

Experiment: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable while controlling other factors.

Experimental group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable.

Control group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used as a comparison to evaluate the effects of the independent variable.

Random assignment: The process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.

Double-blind procedure: An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers are unaware of (blind to) whether participants have received the treatment or a placebo, reducing bias.

Placebo effect: The phenomenon in which participants experience changes in behavior or symptoms simply because they believe they are receiving an active treatment, even when they are not.

Independent variable: The factor in an experiment that is manipulated to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Confounding variable: A factor other than the independent variable that might influence the dependent variable, potentially skewing results.

Dependent variable: The outcome factor in an experiment; the variable that is measured and affected by changes in the independent variable.

Validity: The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Descriptive statistics: Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variation (range, standard deviation).

Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Mean: The arithmetic average of a set of numbers, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the total number of values.

Median: The middle value in a data set when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order.

Skewed distribution: A distribution of data that is not symmetrical, where one tail is longer or fatter than the other, causing the mean to differ from the median.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.

Standard deviation: A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values; a low standard deviation means values are close to the mean, while a high standard deviation means values are spread out.

Normal curve: A bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of data where most values cluster around the mean, and the probability of extreme values decreases as you move away from the center.

Inferential statistics: Statistical techniques that allow researchers to draw conclusions and make predictions about a population based on a sample of data.

Statistical significance: A statistical statement of how likely it is that an observed result occurred by chance. A result is statistically significant if the probability of it occurring by chance is less than a predetermined threshold (often 0.05).

Culture: The shared beliefs, values, traditions, and behaviors of a group of people that are passed down from generation to generation and influence individuals' behaviors and perceptions.

Informed consent: The process of informing participants about the nature, risks, and benefits of a study, and obtaining their voluntary agreement to participate.

Debriefing: The process of informing participants about the purpose of the study, the methods used, and any deceptions after the study has concluded, ensuring they leave with a full understanding of the research.

Biological psychology: A branch of psychology that studies the links between biology (such as brain structure and function) and behavior.

Neuron: A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical signals throughout the body.

Dendrites: Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Axon: The long, threadlike part of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin sheath: A fatty layer that covers the axon of some neurons, speeding up the transmission of electrical impulses.

Action potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, allowing communication with other neurons or muscle cells.

Refractory period: The brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential.

Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

All-or-none response: The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all; it doesn't fire partially.

Synapse: The junction between two neurons, where neurotransmitters are released to carry the signal to the next neuron.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse between neurons.

Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after transmitting the signal.

Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are involved in feelings of pleasure and well-being.

Agonist: A substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist: A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Nervous system: The body's communication system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and neurons, responsible for transmitting signals throughout the body.

Central nervous system (CNS): The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and sending out information.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The network of nerves outside the central nervous system that connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

Nerves: Bundles of axons that form the pathways for electrical signals traveling throughout the body.

Sensory (afferent) neurons: Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor (efferent) neurons: Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Interneurons: Neurons that communicate internally within the central nervous system and intervene between sensory and motor neurons.

Somatic nervous system: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

Sympathetic nervous system: The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body for "fight or flight" responses in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic nervous system: The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after stress, promoting relaxation and conserving energy.

Reflex: A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, often involving a direct pathway from sensory neuron to motor neuron without involving the brain.

Endocrine system: The system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate processes such as metabolism, growth, and mood.

Hormones: Chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system that affect various body functions and behaviors.

Adrenal glands: Glands located on top of the kidneys that release hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol in response to stress.

Pituitary gland: A small gland at the base of the brain that is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls other endocrine glands and regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Lesion: A region of damaged tissue in the brain or other organs, often studied to understand its effects on behavior or function.

Electroencephalogram (EEG): A method of recording electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT (computed tomography) scan: A type of X-ray that creates detailed cross-sectional images of the brain or body.

PET (positron emission tomography) scan: An imaging technique that detects brain activity by measuring glucose metabolism and radioactive tracers in the brain.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A non-invasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain's structure.

fMRI (functional MRI): A type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, used to study brain function in real-time.

Brainstem: The oldest part of the brain, responsible for basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and survival reflexes.

Medulla: The part of the brainstem that controls vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

Thalamus: A relay station in the brain that directs sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

Reticular formation: A network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates sleep, arousal, and attention.

Cerebellum: The part of the brain located at the back of the head that coordinates voluntary movements and helps maintain balance and posture.

Limbic system: A group of structures in the brain involved in emotions, memory, and arousal. Key components include the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.

Amygdala: An almond-shaped structure in the limbic system that processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus: A small region of the brain that regulates basic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle. It also controls the pituitary gland.

Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain, involved in complex functions such as thought, perception, and voluntary movement.

Glial cells (glia): Support cells in the nervous system that provide structural support, nourishment, and protection for neurons.

Frontal lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located at the front of the brain, involved in decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and motor control.

Parietal lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located at the top of the head, involved in processing sensory information, including touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.

Occipital lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain, primarily responsible for processing visual information.

Temporal lobes: The part of the cerebral cortex located on the sides of the brain, responsible for processing auditory information, language, and memory.

Motor cortex: A region of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary muscle movements.

Somatosensory cortex: A region of the parietal lobes that processes sensory input from the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Association areas: Areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, thinking, and memory, but are not directly involved in sensory or motor processing.

Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections in response to injury, experience, or environmental changes.

Neurogenesis: The process by which new neurons are formed in the brain, typically occurring during development but also in certain brain areas throughout life.

Corpus callosum: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate with each other.

Split brain: A condition resulting from surgery that severs the corpus callosum, typically done to treat severe epilepsy; it results in the two hemispheres of the brain operating independently.

Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

Cognitive neuroscience: A field of study that examines the connection between brain activity and cognitive functions such as memory, perception, and decision-making.

Dual processing: The principle that information is processed simultaneously in both conscious and unconscious ways, including the "high road" (deliberate) and "low road" (automatic) processing.

Behavior genetics: The study of the influence of genetic factors on behavior, including how genetics and environment interact to shape individual traits.

Environment: All external factors and conditions that influence an individual’s development and behavior, including social, cultural, and physical surroundings.

Chromosomes: Threadlike structures made of DNA that carry genetic information; humans typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The molecule that carries the genetic instructions for life, found in chromosomes, and responsible for encoding genetic information.

Genes: Segments of DNA that code for specific traits or proteins; they are the basic units of heredity.

Genome: The complete set of genetic material in an organism, including all of its genes.

Identical twins: Twins that result from a single fertilized egg splitting into two embryos; they share 100% of their genetic material.

Fraternal twins: Twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm cells; they are genetically similar, like siblings born at different times.

Molecular genetics: The branch of genetics that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level, often to understand how genetic variations lead to specific traits or disorders.

Heritability: The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.

Interaction: The influence of one factor, such as environment, on another factor, like genetic traits, where the effect of one is dependent on the presence or absence of the other.

Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors without altering the underlying DNA sequence, often through mechanisms such as methylation.

Evolutionary psychology: A field of psychology that examines how evolutionary principles such as natural selection influence human behavior and cognition.

Natural selection: The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over generations.

Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence of a gene that can lead to new traits or characteristics, potentially affecting an organism's survival and reproduction.

Paul Broca: A French physician known for discovering that damage to a specific area in the left frontal lobe (Broca's area) impairs speech production, leading to the discovery of the brain's role in language.

Carl Wernicke: A German neurologist who discovered Wernicke's area, a region of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in language comprehension. Damage to this area causes difficulty in understanding language.

Roger Sperry: A neuroscientist known for his research on split-brain patients, showing that the two hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions.

Michael Gazzaniga: A neuroscientist who, along with Sperry, conducted split-brain research and contributed to the understanding of how the two hemispheres of the brain process information differently.

Charles Darwin: The naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, emphasizing how traits that increase survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations.

Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including our thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

Hypnosis: A state of focused attention, heightened suggestibility, and deep relaxation, often used for therapeutic purposes or entertainment.

Posthypnotic suggestion: A suggestion made during hypnosis that influences the subject’s behavior after the hypnosis session has ended.

Dissociation: A psychological state in which a person feels disconnected from their thoughts, feelings, or sense of identity, often associated with certain mental health conditions or experiences.

Circadian rhythm: The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours, influenced by factors like light and temperature.

REM sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

Alpha waves: Brain waves that are associated with a relaxed but awake state, typically seen when a person is resting with their eyes closed.

Sleep: A natural, recurring state of rest characterized by reduced consciousness and muscle activity, essential for physical and mental health.

Hallucinations: Perceptions of things that aren’t actually present, such as seeing or hearing things that others do not, often occurring during sleep deprivation, drug use, or certain mental health conditions.

Delta waves: Slow brain waves associated with deep, restorative sleep (especially in NREM sleep).

NREM sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep, which includes stages of light to deep sleep without vivid dreaming.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): A part of the brain's hypothalamus that regulates the body’s circadian rhythm, controlling sleep-wake cycles and the release of hormones like melatonin.

Insomnia: A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early, leading to impaired daytime functioning.

Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder marked by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep, often accompanied by cataplexy (muscle weakness).

Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, causing disrupted sleep and daytime fatigue.

Night terrors: A sleep disorder primarily in children, characterized by sudden arousals from deep sleep with intense fear, screaming, and physical agitation, often with little memory of the event afterward.

Dream: A series of images, thoughts, and emotions that occur involuntarily during sleep, typically during REM sleep, often involving a narrative or scenario.

Manifest content: According to Freud, the actual storyline or images in a dream, as remembered by the dreamer.

Latent content: According to Freud, the underlying meaning or hidden psychological significance of a dream, often disguised by the manifest content.

REM rebound: The phenomenon where, after sleep deprivation, a person experiences longer and more intense REM sleep once they are able to sleep normally again.

Substance use disorder: A condition in which an individual becomes dependent on a substance, resulting in harmful consequences and difficulty controlling use.

Psychoactive drug: A chemical substance that affects brain function, altering mood, perception, consciousness, or behavior.

Tolerance: The phenomenon where, after repeated use of a drug, an individual requires larger doses to achieve the same effect.

Addiction: A condition characterized by compulsive drug use, seeking, or behavior, often leading to dependency and negative consequences.

Withdrawal: The physical and mental symptoms that occur when an individual stops using a substance on which they have become dependent.

Depressants: Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow down body functions, often leading to relaxation or drowsiness.

Alcohol use disorder: A condition marked by excessive and problematic drinking that interferes with daily life, leading to physical and psychological dependence.

Barbiturates: A class of depressant drugs that can sedate and relax the body but also carry the risk of addiction and overdose.

Opiates: A class of drugs, including heroin and prescription painkillers, that work by relieving pain and inducing feelings of euphoria, with a high potential for addiction.

Stimulants: Drugs that increase neural activity, speed up body functions, and temporarily elevate mood, alertness, and energy.

Amphetamines: A class of stimulant drugs that increase energy and alertness, but can also lead to addiction and harmful psychological effects.

Nicotine: A stimulant drug found in tobacco, which increases alertness and can lead to addiction.

Cocaine: A powerful stimulant drug that increases energy and euphoria but also poses serious risks for addiction, health issues, and overdose.

Methamphetamine: A highly addictive stimulant drug that increases energy, focus, and euphoria but can cause severe health problems, including long-term brain damage.

Ecstasy (MDMA): A synthetic stimulant and hallucinogen that enhances feelings of intimacy, energy, and sensory perception, often used recreationally, but with risks of dehydration, addiction, and neurotoxicity.

Hallucinogens: A group of drugs that distort perception, leading to hallucinations, altered senses, and changes in thought, often affecting serotonin systems in the brain.

LSD: A powerful hallucinogenic drug that alters perception, thoughts, and feelings, often leading to vivid visual and auditory hallucinations.

William James: Consciousness is a continuous "stream" that adapts to the environment, personal and selective, helping us function and survive.

Ernest Hilgard: Proposed the neodissociation theory of hypnosis, suggesting hypnosis involves divided consciousness, with part of the mind dissociating during the experience.

Sigmund Freud: Focused on the unconscious mind, believing much of behavior is influenced by repressed desires and unresolved conflicts. Dreams reveal unconscious content.