Untitled Flashcards Set

I. The Framers’ Vision

• In 1787, the delegates at the Constitutional Convention debated the structure of the executive branch.

• Concerns existed about creating a powerful office that might resemble a monarchy.

• The presidency was ultimately established as a single executive office with a system of checks and balances.

II. Constitutional Basis: Article II

Qualifications for Presidency

• Must be a natural-born U.S. citizen.

• Must be at least 35 years old.

• Must have been a U.S. resident for at least 14 years.

Formal Powers of the President

• Commander in Chief of the military.

• Power to issue pardons and reprieves.

• Appoints ambassadors, judges, and public ministers (with Senate confirmation).

• Recommends legislative measures to Congress.

• Can veto or approve bills passed by Congress.

• Can convene or adjourn Congress under special circumstances.

Limits on Presidential Power

• Must receive a majority of Electoral College votes to win office.

• Subject to congressional oversight and possible impeachment.

• Treaties and appointments require Senate approval.

III. Presidential Powers, Functions, and Policy Agenda

A president’s power extends beyond constitutional limits through a combination of formal (constitutional) powers and informal (political) powers.

1. Formal Powers

These powers are explicitly outlined in Article II of the Constitution.

A. Chief Legislator

• The president can propose legislation but cannot introduce bills in Congress.

• The State of the Union Address is used to recommend policy priorities.

• The Veto Power allows the president to reject bills, requiring a two-thirds congressional override to overturn.

B. Commander in Chief

• Leads the U.S. military but does not have the power to declare war (Congress holds this authority).

• Can order military action without congressional approval (e.g., sending troops overseas).

• The War Powers Act of 1973 requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and limits engagement without congressional authorization.

C. Chief Diplomat

• Negotiates treaties (with Senate approval).

• Can issue executive agreements, which do not require Senate approval.

• Appoints ambassadors to foreign nations.

D. Chief Executive & Administrator

• Oversees the federal bureaucracy, which includes departments, agencies, and commissions.

• Issues executive orders, which have the force of law but can be overturned by future administrations or courts.

E. Judicial Powers

• Can grant pardons and reprieves for federal crimes.

• Nominates federal judges and Supreme Court justices.

2. Informal Powers

These powers are derived from political precedent, influence, and media presence.

A. Powers of Persuasion

• Uses bargaining and persuasion to gain congressional and public support.

• Example: President Trump personally called wavering senators to push for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (2017).

B. Executive Orders

• These directives have the force of law but can be overturned by the courts or a future president.

• Example: President Obama’s Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) protected undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. as children.

C. Signing Statements

• These statements accompany bill signings and outline how the president interprets the law.

• Example: President George W. Bush’s 2005 signing statement asserted executive authority in the war on terror.

D. Bully Pulpit

• The president can use public speeches, media, and social platforms to shape public opinion and pressure Congress.

• Example: President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s fireside chats during the Great Depression.

IV. Presidential Veto Power

• The president can veto congressional bills.

• Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate.

• Pocket Veto: If a president does not sign a bill within 10 days and Congress adjourns, the bill does not become law.

Historical Trends in Vetoes

• Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) used 372 vetoes, reflecting a strong executive role.

• Grover Cleveland (1885-1889) used 304 vetoes, showing strong opposition to congressional actions.

• Modern presidents use vetoes sparingly, relying instead on persuasion and executive orders.

V. The Line-Item Veto Debate

• A line-item veto allows an executive to reject specific parts of a spending bill.

• Congress granted this power to the president in 1996, but the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional in Clinton v. City of New York (1998).

VI. The President’s Role in Foreign and Domestic Policy

1. Foreign Policy Leadership

• The president is the primary decision-maker in international affairs.

• Can deploy military forces, negotiate treaties, and recognize foreign governments.

• Example: Ronald Reagan’s aggressive stance against the Soviet Union in the Cold War.

2. Domestic Policy Leadership

• The president influences economic, social, and regulatory policies.

• Example: Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society programs expanded welfare and civil rights protections.

VII. The Evolution of Presidential Power

• Early Presidents (1789-1836): Congress dominated policymaking, with presidents playing a limited role.

• Civil War & Reconstruction (1861-1877): Abraham Lincoln expanded executive power by suspending habeas corpus and issuing the Emancipation Proclamation.

• 20th Century Expansion: Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin D. Roosevelt used executive power extensively to implement reforms.

• Modern Presidency: Presidents rely more on media influence, executive orders, and international leadership.

VIII. Conclusion

The president’s ability to implement a policy agenda depends on:

1. Formal constitutional powers (e.g., veto, military command, diplomacy).

2. Informal political influence (e.g., persuasion, executive orders, media).

3. Congressional cooperation (divided government limits presidential action).

4. Public support and approval ratings.

I. The President's Role and Team

• The president makes crucial decisions affecting the nation.

• Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution grants the president power to appoint officials.

• The president's team includes the Vice President, the Cabinet, federal agencies, and the White House staff.

II. The Vice President

• Chosen by the presidential nominee in consultation with the party.

• Has limited power but role varies based on presidential delegation.

• Constitutional Role:

  • President of the Senate.

  • Takes over presidential duties in cases of removal, death, or inability.

• Historical Influence:

  • Dick Cheney (George W. Bush): Advocated strong military policies and pushed for the 2003 Iraq invasion.

  • Joe Biden (Barack Obama): Led efforts on Iraq policy and budget negotiations.

  • Mike Pence (Donald Trump): Managed COVID-19 response.

III. The Cabinet and Bureaucracy

• Cabinet:

  • 15 department heads (e.g., Secretary of Defense, Secretary of State).

  • Additional members added by presidents.

  • Appointments consider diversity in gender, ethnicity, and political balance.

  • Notable historical appointments:

    • Frances Perkins (FDR): First female cabinet member (Labor Secretary).

    • Robert Weaver (Lyndon B. Johnson): First African American cabinet member (HUD Secretary).

    • Jimmy Carter appointed significant numbers of women and minorities.

    • Barack Obama’s first-term Cabinet: 53% women and minorities.

• Key Departments:

  • State Department: Manages foreign policy, operates embassies, and appoints ambassadors.

  • Defense Department: Oversees the military (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines), maintains civilian leadership, and includes the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

  • Federal Agencies: Execute specific government functions under larger departments, e.g., FBI (Justice Department), Coast Guard (Homeland Security), FDA, IRS, CIA, Postal Service.

IV. President's Immediate Staff

• Executive Office of the President (EOP):

  • Established in 1939 to assist the president.

  • Includes Office of Management and Budget (OMB), CIA, Council of Economic Advisers.

• White House Staff:

  • Close advisers requiring no Senate approval.

  • Often more influential than Cabinet members.

  • Chief of Staff: Manages White House operations, influences decisions.

  • Press Secretary: Communicates with the public.

  • Chief Legal Counsel: Advises on legal matters.

  • National Security Adviser: Coordinates intelligence and security briefings.

  • National Security Council: Includes president, secretaries of defense and state, military leaders, intelligence officials.

V. Interactions with Other Branches

• Congress:

  • Controls legislation and federal budget.

  • Confirms presidential appointments.

  • President directs the Office of Legislative Affairs to support legislative processes.

• Public Opinion & Media:

  • The president’s team often shapes public perception.

  • Strategic communication through the Press Secretary and other offices.

Summary

• The president relies on a diverse team for governance.

• The vice president’s influence depends on the president.

• The Cabinet manages national concerns, and federal agencies execute laws.

• The president’s immediate staff provides direct counsel and assistance.

• Coordination with Congress and public engagement is essential for policy success.

Secretary of State:—oversees foreign policy and international relations.

Secretary of the Treasury:—manages national finances and economic policy.

Secretary of Defense:—responsible for military forces and national security.

Attorney General:i—serves as the chief law enforcement officer.

Secretary of the Interior:—manages natural resources and public lands.

Secretary of Agriculture: Brooke Rollins—oversees farming, forestry, and food.

Secretary of Commerce: Jeremy Pelter (Acting)—promotes economic growth and trade.

Secretary of Labor: Vince Micone (Acting)—handles workforce issues and labor standards.

Secretary of Health and Human Services: Robert F. Kennedy Jr.—directs health policy and services.

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development: Scott Turner—addresses national housing needs.

Secretary of Transportation: Sean Duffy—oversees transportation systems and policy.

Secretary of Energy: Chris Wright—manages energy policy and nuclear safety.

Secretary of Education: Denise L. Carter (Acting)—guides national education policy.

Secretary of Veterans Affairs: Doug Collins—provides services to military veterans.

Secretary of Homeland Security: Kristi Noem—protects against domestic threats and manages immigration.

I. Foundations of the Presidency

The presidency is shaped by multiple factors, including:

• Article II of the Constitution

• Five Constitutional Amendments

• Federal Laws

• Supreme Court Decisions

• Customs and Precedents

While originally designed as a limited executive office to implement Congress’s policies, the presidency has evolved into a powerful leadership position.

II. Federalist No. 70: Justifying a Strong Executive

Central Argument:

• Alexander Hamilton argued for a unified executive to ensure energy, efficiency, and accountability in government.

• A single executive would avoid conflicts and blame-shifting common in plural executive arrangements.

Key Quotes:

1. "Wherever two or more persons are engaged in any common enterprise... there is always danger of difference of opinion."

2. "The multiplication of the Executive adds to the difficulty of detection... it often becomes impossible... to determine on whom the blame... ought really to fall."

3. "A single executive... will be more narrowly watched and more readily suspected."

Implications:

• A unified executive makes decision-making efficient and swift.

• The public can hold a single executive accountable, rather than dealing with fragmented authority.

• The chief executive must balance power responsibly to avoid becoming a tyrant.

III. Evolution of Presidential Power

A. Early Presidential Restraint: Washington’s Precedents

• Modesty in Power: Rejected grandiose titles, accepted "Mr. President."

• Two-Term Limit: Set the precedent of serving only two terms, later formalized by the 22nd Amendment.

• Minimal Use of Veto: Used the power sparingly, respecting Congress’s legislative authority.

• Foreign Policy Caution: Advocated neutrality to avoid entangling alliances.

B. Expanding Presidential Authority

• Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809): Louisiana Purchase without congressional approval.

• James Madison (1809–1817): Led the U.S. into the War of 1812.

• James Monroe (1817–1825): Established the Monroe Doctrine, asserting U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

IV. The Imperial Presidency

A. Characteristics of an Imperial Presidency

• A powerful executive with greater authority than what the Constitution explicitly grants.

• A weaker Congress that yields more authority to the president.

• The presidency’s power expands during crises, war, and economic turmoil.

B. Key Figures in the Growth of Presidential Power

1. Andrew Jackson (1829–1837)

   • Used the veto 12 times, more than all previous presidents combined.

   • Opposed the national bank, increasing executive authority.

   • Appealed directly to the people, increasing the president’s role in shaping policy.

2. Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865)

   • Expanded executive power to preserve the Union and limit slavery.

   • Suspended habeas corpus, arrested dissenters, and asserted emergency powers.

   • Justified his actions as necessary during a national crisis.

3. Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)

   • Stewardship Theory: The president should do anything not expressly forbidden by the Constitution to serve the people.

   • Strengthened the Monroe Doctrine and expanded U.S. influence globally.

   • Advocated for progressive reforms, conservation, and trust-busting.

4. Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921)

   • Asserted strong leadership in foreign policy (WWI, League of Nations advocacy).

   • Delivered the first in-person State of the Union since Jefferson.

   • Expanded the role of the federal government in economic and social issues.

V. Key Takeaways

• The presidency has evolved from a limited role to a powerful executive office.

• Federalist No. 70 justified a strong but accountable executive.

• Early presidents (Washington–Monroe) largely deferred to Congress, but later presidents expanded executive authority.

• The Imperial Presidency concept describes a dominant president overshadowing Congress.

• Presidents often expand their power in times of crisis (e.g., Lincoln during the Civil War, Roosevelt during economic and foreign policy crises).

I. The President as Communicator in Chief

• The president must maintain communication with the public to ensure support for policies and initiatives.

• Public support can influence Congress, as citizens pressure their representatives to align with presidential proposals.

• The executive branch must publicize its agenda, using media to persuade the public and Congress.

II. Relationship with the Press

The Bully Pulpit

• Theodore Roosevelt referred to the presidency as a “bully pulpit,” meaning a powerful platform to advocate ideas.

• Roosevelt actively engaged the press, holding informal conversations and favoring certain journalists.

• He and his Cabinet used media strategically to distribute speeches and photos.

FDR and Fireside Chats

• Franklin D. Roosevelt leveraged radio in the 1930s to communicate directly with Americans.

• His "fireside chats" reassured citizens and encouraged them to support New Deal policies.

• Public response to these chats influenced congressional decision-making.

Evolution of Presidential Press Relations

• Early 1900s: Presidents began engaging more with the press.

• 1930s: FDR’s fireside chats set a new precedent for direct communication.

• 1960s: John F. Kennedy introduced live televised press conferences.

• Modern Era: The 24-hour news cycle and social media have transformed presidential communication.

III. State of the Union Address

• The Constitution requires the president to update Congress on the state of the nation.

• Early Reports: Washington and Adams delivered speeches, but Jefferson transitioned to written reports.

• 1913: Woodrow Wilson revived the in-person speech format.

• Modern Era: The address is a televised event, providing a national platform for policy advocacy.

IV. Presidential Influence on Political Behavior

Key Examples of Presidential Communication During Economic Crises

1. James Madison (1819 - Panic of 1819)

   • Urged Congress to support domestic manufacturing.

   • Encouraged economic resilience despite falling prices and labor costs.

2. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 - Great Depression)

   • Focused on restoring public confidence in the financial system.

   • Encouraged unity and collective action to overcome economic challenges.

3. Ronald Reagan (1981 - Recession and Inflation Crisis)

   • Emphasized reducing government spending and regulation.

   • Framed economic recovery as a matter of national pride and perseverance.

Comparison of the Three Approaches:

• Similarity: All three presidents aimed to inspire confidence and action among citizens.

• Difference: Madison and FDR encouraged faith in government solutions, while Reagan promoted individual economic responsibility.

V. The Role of the White House Communications Staff

• The press secretary is responsible for managing communication between the president and the media.

• Press conferences are often scripted, with presidents preparing for anticipated questions.

• Example of Media Manipulation:

  • The George W. Bush administration was criticized for planting reporters and producing government-prepared news reports.

VI. Modern Technology and Social Media in Presidential Communication

• Historically, presidents could interrupt major television networks for announcements.

• Today, live presidential addresses are often relegated to lesser-watched cable channels.

• The rise of 24-hour news cycles, social media, and push notifications has significantly altered presidential communication.

• Social media platforms (e.g., Twitter) allow presidents to bypass traditional media and speak directly to the public.

Key Takeaways:

1. Technology Shapes Communication: From newspapers and radio to television and social media, each era has brought new communication challenges and opportunities.

2. Presidents Use Media Strategically: Leaders tailor messages to gain public and congressional support.

3. Direct Communication is Key: Modern presidents increasingly rely on digital platforms to connect with citizens.

4. Media Can Be Manipulated: While providing transparency, media can also be used for political spin.