APUSH Review (APUSH Period 7 American Expansion) (1890 - 1909)
American Pageant (Kennedy) - Chapter 27: Empire and Expansion discusses the motivations behind American imperialism, including economic interests, competition with European powers, and the desire to spread democracy and civilization.
American History (Brinkley) - Chapter 19: The Expansion of America examines the role of Manifest Destiny in shaping U.S. foreign policy, the impact of the Spanish-American War, and the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
America’s History (Henretta) - Chapter 20/21: The Age of Imperialism explores how American expansionism was justified through the lens of social Darwinism and the belief in American exceptionalism, highlighting key events like the annexation of Hawaii and the Open Door Policy in China.
Introduction to U.S. Imperialism
Overview of U.S. Imperialism
U.S. imperialism represents the country's extensive approach to foreign policy and territorial expansion from the late 19th century into the early 20th century.
Characterized by military might, economic interests, and cultural ideologies.
Transition from a nation focused on the Atlantic coastline to engaging with the Pacific theater.
Notable interactions included conflicts and treaties with Mexico and Spain, and negotiations with Native American groups.
Motives for Imperialism
Economic Motives:
Industrial Revolution spurred demand for raw materials and new markets.
U.S. leaders recognized the need for cheap raw materials and increased exports, motivating overseas investments and territorial acquisitions.
Political Motives:
Desire to compete with established powers (European nations, Japan).
Belief that a robust empire was necessary to avoid second-rate status; national pride drove expansion.
Strategic/Military Motives:
Emphasis on military presence globally, with advocacy from Alfred Thayer Mahan on naval power.
Establishment of naval bases was critical for military readiness and protecting economic interests.
Ideological Motives:
Influence of Social Darwinism and the belief in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization.
Justification of expansionist policies through the 'White Man's Burden' to civilize and Christianize other nations.
Josiah Strong promoted spreading Protestant values as a moral imperative.
Case Study: Hawaii
Before U.S. involvement, Hawaii was an independent nation with its own culture and governance.
American missionaries affected the local culture by introducing Christianity and Western values in the 1820s.
American planters began influencing Hawaii's economy by the 1860s, particularly the Dole family.
The establishment of a naval base at Pearl Harbor by treaty in 1887 intensified American desires for control.
Despite opposition from Queen Liliuokalani, Hawaii was annexed in 1898 following the Spanish-American War.
The Spanish-American War
Background
Cuba was struggling for independence, attracting U.S. sympathy due to economic interests in sugar plantations.
Yellow journalism exaggerated injustices faced by Cubans, inflaming calls for intervention.
Key Events Leading to War
The De Lôme letter criticized McKinley; the explosion of the USS Maine catalyzed public opinion for war.
U.S. declared war in April 1898, leading to military action in Cuba and the Philippines.
The Teller Amendment affirmed that the U.S. would not control Cuba, emphasizing support for independence.
Outcome of War
Known as "The Splendid Little War," resulted in 400 American military deaths, overshadowed by disease.
Key victories included Admiral Dewey's defeat of the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay and success in Cuba.
The Treaty of Paris in August 1898 ended the war, granting the U.S. territories like Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Post-War Territorial Issues
Debate Over New Territories
Acquisition of territories spurred debates; Anti-Imperialist League emerged arguing against annexation.
Figures like Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain highlighted concerns about imperialism's impact on democracy.
Cuba and Platt Amendment
Passed in 1901, replaced the Teller Amendment; established Cuba as a U.S. protectorate.
Puerto Rico’s Status
Granted limited self-government but still subject to U.S. laws; Puerto Ricans received U.S. citizenship in 1917.
Philippines and Independence
Emilio Aguinaldo led independence movement, resulting in a violent guerrilla war against U.S. forces.
Miscommunication extended the conflict; formal independence achieved only in 1946.
Open-Door Policy in China
Established by John Hay in 1899 to ensure free trade with China, preventing any nation from monopolizing markets.
Faced resistance leading to the Boxer Rebellion, which was suppressed by an international coalition.
Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency
Foreign Policy Changes:
After McKinley's assassination, Roosevelt adopted a more aggressive foreign policy.
Emphasized military strength and expansion with the mantra "speak softly and carry a big stick."
Panama Canal:
Addressed the need for a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans for trade and military efficiency.
Supported Panamanian independence to secure canal construction rights (completed in 1914).
Roosevelt Corollary:
Asserted U.S. rights to intervene in Latin America to maintain stability, marking a significant expansion of involvement.
Overview of the Progressive Movement
The Progressive Movement was a widespread reform effort in the United States during the early 1900s, aimed at addressing a variety of social, political, and economic issues.
Emergence: The movement emerged as a response to the challenges posed by industrialization, urbanization, and political corruption.
Goals: It sought to create a more equitable society through reforms in labor, women's suffrage, education, and government regulation of business practices.
Division of the Republican Party
During Taft's presidency, the Republican Party underwent significant internal division, primarily illustrated by the conflict between two factions:
Supporters of Theodore Roosevelt:
Often referred to as progressives.
Advocated for sweeping reforms aimed at curbing corporate power.
Promoted social justice.
Enhanced democracy through various measures, including direct primaries and the regulation of monopolies.
Supporters of William Howard Taft:
Favored more conservative policies that prioritized business interests.
Aimed to maintain the status quo in certain areas.
Key Events Contributing to Division
Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909:
Taft's support for this tariff raised rates on certain goods instead of lowering them.
Progressives argued that lower tariffs were essential for alleviating consumer prices and stimulating the economy.
The tariff’s implications further alienated progressive Republicans, creating a divide within the party.
Ballinger-Pinchot Affair:
This controversy involved Interior Secretary Richard Ballinger, who was accused of favoring private interests over public lands.
The affair contradicted conservationist principles upheld by Roosevelt's followers.
It intensified the factionalism within the Republican Party.
Impact on Woodrow Wilson's Presidency
The growing division among Republicans set the political landscape for Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, to emerge victoriously in the 1912 election.
Wilson campaigned on a platform that promised progressive reforms including the New Freedom initiative:
Aimed to dismantle monopolistic corporations.
Intended to restore economic opportunities for small businesses and individuals.
Wilson's Foreign Policy
Wilson's foreign policy often reflected his progressive ideals, including:
A focus on promoting democracy and moral diplomacy.
Significant events, such as the Philippines-American War and the lead-up to World War I.
Advocacy for the establishment of the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts.
This approach signified a pivotal change in U.S. foreign relations, aligning them with moral governance principles derived from the domestic progressive agenda.