History ExaM Review

History Exam Review 

End of the 19th Century and The World in 1900

Reasons for Imperialism and Colonialism 

• Imperialism: a practice by which a country extends its power and influence over other countries

• Colonialism: a practice of acquiring and maintaining control over a territory 

• Western economic interests seek overseas markets for industrial production, investment capital, and raw materials.

• Christian missionaries' activities in the colonial world required military protection due to violent resistance.

• Strategic advantage through recruitable military manpower and overseas bases.

•  National pride and search for national prestige.

Importance of the  Suez Canal

• Britain's Influence on Asia

•  The sea route was viewed as a "lifeline" for Asian possessions.

• Invasion of Egypt in 1882 and control of the Suez Canal.

• Customary food production limit of 30%.

•  The majority of imported foodstuffs and raw materials are from Asian and Pacific possessions.

White Man’s Burden 

• The duties of Western powers are: 

  • Providing superior culture to colonized people.

  • Spiritual inspiration from Christianity.

  •  Enlightened administration benefits

British-French Dominance 

• France sought psychological compensation for territorial conquest in the non-European world.

• French control over Africa, Southeast Asia, and South Pacific island chains

• France-Britain Cooperation

• Recognized British occupation of Egypt

• Britain endorsed French designs on Morocco

• Cooperated to control German power expansion in Europe and the colonial world

German Dominance 

• Germany became dominant in Europe

• 1897 German Kaiser's Weltpolitik

• Projected Germany's power into global empire competition

• Aimed to project military, economic, and political influence

•  Seizes Chinese port of Kiao-Chow for future Far Eastern fleet.

• Kaiser declared himself the "protector" of 300 million Muslims in 1898.

•  Challenges British and French positions in North Africa and the Middle East.

Russian Dominance 

• Russian Empire's Expansionist Frontier

• Approaching the Mediterranean, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, and Pacific.

• Pressing against the competing interests of other states.

Sick Man of Europe 

• Ottoman Empire's Influence on the Balkans

• Istanbul/Constantinople, Eastern Orthodoxy's spiritual capital, under Ottoman control.

• Relied on their reputation as "sick men of Europe" by relinquishing Balkan Slavic political authority.

• Confirmed independence of Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro.

Russo-Japanese War 

• Japanese expansion led to conflict with Russia.

•  The Japanese navy defeated the Russian fleet at Port Arthur.

•  The Japanese army defeated the Russian army in Manchuria.

Results of the Russo-Japanese War

• Nationalist revolutions in Persia (1905), Turkey (1908), and China (1911).

•  Undermining the political authority of the Romanov dynasty.

•  The gradual rapprochement between the Tsarist regime and Great Britain was due to Russian seapower destruction.

•  Germany left as a potential threat to Britain's seas mastery.

United States-Dominance 

• Pan-American Union: US-dominated, European-emancipated hemispheric political system

• US Acquisitions in Central America

• US firms acquired agricultural and subsoil mineral resources.

• Sugar-producing interests gained a monopoly on the Cuban sugar cane crop

• United Fruit Company established a large "banana empire" in Central America

• US firms controlled petroleum resources, Chilean copper, Bolivian tin, and other industrial raw materials

Panama Canal

•  Supported by the American government, Panama was recognized as an independent republic.

• The US authorized the construction of a fifty-mile canal across the isthmus in 1904.

• Cuba and Panama included US intervention clauses in constitutions to protect independence and social order.

• Both countries authorized the construction of American bases on their territories.

World War I and the End of Empires 

German Economic and Military Power 

• Convenient marriage between large-scale agriculture and heavy industry.

• Promoted expansion of heavy industry without threatening the former's socioeconomic position

• Key sectors of heavy industry are dominated by giant firms with unprecedented production and distribution control.

• Losing strategic advantage over France and Russia

Schlieffen Plan 

• Schlieffen Plan (1906-1906): Concentration of German Military Power

• Aimed to defeat the French army within six weeks.

• German forces transferred to the eastern front to meet the Russian army

• German numerical superiority over France.

• Russian Empire's inability to deploy a superior army before a westward blow.

•  Extended national military service from two to three years.

•  Aims to field a frontline army equal to the German army by 1916.

• Russian government initiates strategic railway construction.

Goals of Germany 

• Permanent annexation of France's fortresses along the German frontier

• Occupation of major English Channel ports

• Financial imposition to prevent future armed force reconstruction

• Systematic pushback of Russia from Germany's eastern frontier

• Establishment of imperial Germany as Europe's hegemonic power

Gallipoli Campaign

•  The allied fleet failed to force Dardanelles

• Amphibian landing on Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915

•  Ottoman forces held the Allies back from objectives

• The campaign caused significant damage to Ottoman resources

•  Allies better equipped to replace losses than Ottomans

• Allied attempt to secure passage through Dardanelles unsuccessful

Arab Revolt 

• Achieved a Great Power guarantee for Husayn's ambitions.

• Britain acquired a Muslim ally.

• Arabs joined British forces and defeated the Ottomans.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

• Divided the Arab Middle East

• Recognized French claims to Syria, granting France "direct control" along the Syrian coast

• Guaranteed British position in Iraq

• Britain gained "direct control" over southern Mesopotamia

• Promised Independent Arab State to Husayn, a confederation of states in British and French indirect influence zones

Balfour Declaration 

• Britain agreed to favour the Jewish national home in Palestine

• Conveyed to Rothschild, a prominent British Zionist

• Aimed to appeal to Jewish people and secure Suez Canal control

Bolshevik Revolution 

• Lenin granted safe railway transit from neutral Switzerland to the Russian capital.l

• Lenin's program: immediate war cessation, possible peace with Central Powers

Brest-Litocsk Agreement 

• A peace treaty was signed on March 3, 1918, between central powers and Soviet Russia. 

• This ended Russia's involvement in World War I 

• It was negotiated and signed at Brest-Litovsk

Entrance of the US to War 

• The British navy drove German warships and merchantmen from the high seas.

• Forced Germany to rely on neutral shipping for foreign trade.

• The blockade severely limited Germany's access to neutral supply sources and transport methods.

• Smaller and poorly trained than the Belgian army.

• In 1918, American military and naval forces expanded to 4.8 million.

• Contributed significantly to the Anglo-French Western Frontt effort.

Post-World War I World 

1918 Influenza (Spanish Flu)

Principles of Wilson 

War Causes:

• Secret diplomacy.

• Oppression of ethnic minorities by dominant nationalities.

•  The autocracy system allows the privileged elite to monopolize power.

European Strategy for Public Opinion: 

• Maximize public influence through open discussion of international issues.

•  Minimize secretive intrigues by imperialistically inclined national leaders.

• Redraw Europe's map based on the national self-determination principle.

• Democratize internal political institutions to remove autocratic constraints on public opinion.

League of Nations 

• Each member state is represented by one vote.

• The council includes permanent seats for delegates from five great powers: England, France, Italy, the USA, and Japan.

• Permanent members can veto proposals threatening national interests

• British and French Colonial Empires

• Treated as single political units.

• Unrecognized national self-determination for non-European populations.

New States in Central and Eastern Europe (Problems)

• 1 million German-speaking citizens integrated.

• Satisfied need for Baltic seaport access.

• "German-speaking Austrians Forbidden from Joining Germany"

• Unification is perceived as a security threat to Eastern Europe.

• Citizens of Austria were explicitly forbidden.

Treaty of Versailles—New Europe 

• Peace treaty that officially ended World War I 

• Signed on June 28, 1919

American Withdrawal from World Politics 

• The United States Senate refused to accord its constitutionally prescribed consent to the three pacts signed by President Wilson.

Crisis in the World: 1920’s

Hyperinflation in Germany 

• 1922 Bread Price Trends

• 163 marks in 1922

• 1,500,000 marks in September 1923

• 200,000,000,000 marks in November 1923

• Peak of hyperinflation.

Economic Nationalism 

• Economic self-sufficiency benefits include reducing dependence on foreign markets and supply sources.

• The number of independent economic units in Europe increased from twenty to twenty-seven.

• Urban centers and industrial sectors were separated from the traditional raw material source.s

• New frontiers often cut across existing transportation means, causing confusion and inefficiency.

• Political elites of new nations used discriminatory practices to nurture industries, inhibiting intra-European commerce post-war.

• Western hemisphere and Far East nations established domestic industries to produce substitutes for manufactured products unavailable from European belligerent.s

• Underdeveloped nations turned to the o US or Japan for industrial products.

• Highest duty level in modern American history.

Locarno Treaties- 1925 

• Western European Allied powers sought a post-war territorial settlement in exchange for normalizing relations with the defeated German Reich.

•  Locarno divided Europe's borders into western and eastern categories.

• Mutual guarantee of Belgium, France, and Germany's frontiers by Britain and Italy.

• Arbitration treaties between Germany and Belgium, Germany and France, and similar treaties between Germany and Poland and Germany and Czechoslovakia.

Flappers

• Flappers are portrayed as stylish party girls

• Practiced public smoking, alcohol consumption, and jazz club dancing

• Demonstrated sexual freedom challenging Victorian morality

Prohibition

• Set rules for the federal ban on alcoholic beverages.

• Aim to reduce crime, corruption, social issues, tax burden, and improve health.

•  Not all alcohol is banned; religious use is permitted.

•  Post-ban, criminal gangs controlled beer and liquor supply.

• New opposition to Prohibition emerged by the late1920s.

Crisis in the World: 1930’s

Wall Street-Stock Market Crash, 1929

• The 1929 Stock Market Crisis

• The stock market, centred at the New York Stock Exchange, was a hub of reckless speculation.

• The market reached its peak in August 1929.

• The American economy entered a mild recession in the summer of 1929, leading to a stock market crash.

• On October 24, 1929, overpriced shares were sold, leading to a record 12.9 million shares traded.

• The crash resulted in millions of shares becoming worthless, and investors who had bought stocks "on margin" were completely wiped out.

• The downturn led to a slowdown in production, worker firings, and increased homelessness.

• Farmers were forced to leave their crops rotting in the fields.

Great Depression 

• The crash resulted in millions of shares becoming worthless, and investors who had bought stocks "on margin" were completely wiped out.

• The downturn led to a slowdown in production, worker firings, and increased homelessness.

• Farmers were forced to leave their crops rotting in the fields.

New Deal in the USA

• "New Deal" Programs and Regulations

• Enacted by President Roosevelt between 1933-1939.

• Included "3 R's": relief for the unemployed and poor, economic recovery, and financial system reform.

Japanese Militarism 

• Ikki Kita's 20th-Century Political Theory

• Advocated a hybrid of state society and "Asian nationalism."

• Blended ultranationalist movement with Japanese militarism.

• Extreme rights became influential in the Japanese government and society.

Spanish Civil War 

• Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

• Republicans fought against Nationalists, led by General Franco.

• Republicans, communists, and anarchists allied with the Second Spanish Republic.

• Nationalists won the war, ending in 1939.

• Franco ruled until he died in 1975.

• Germany and Italy supported Franco.

Mussolini in Italy: Rise of Fascism 

• 1921 Mussolini Speech: Aryan and Mediterranean Race

• Mussolini referred to Italians as the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan Race.

• He argued the world was divided into a hierarchy of races.

• History was a Darwinian struggle for power and territory between various "racial masses."

Rise of Hitler 

• Hitler's Admiration of Italian Fascists

• Modelled himself and the Nazi Party on Mussolini and Fascists.

• Nazis, led by Hitler and Ernst Ludendorff, attempted the "March on Berlin, "modelled on March on Rome.

• Failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich in November 1923.

Beer Hall Putsch 

• Hitler and SA stormed Munich's 3,000-person public meeting.

• Hitler declared a national revolution and a new government formation.on

Mein Kampf

• Hitler's Prison Dilemma in Mein Kampf

• Defines Hitler's racial-based society transformation plan.

• Equivalents Jews as "germs" and "international poisoners."

Nazi Partys Rise to Power

• Hitler pledged respect for the state's authority.

•  Promised political power through the democratic process

Reichstag Fire 

• "Rosstag Fire in 1933: Hindenburg Signs Nazi Decree"

• Fire set on Reichstag building.

• Nazis suspend basic rights.

• Allows detention without trial.

Night of the Long Knives 

• Urged by Göring and Himmler.

• Aim to consolidate power.

• Alleviated military concerns about Ernst Röhm and Sturmabteilung.

• Nazis' paramilitary organization, "Brownshirts.".

• Hindenburg's death.

• Hitler became Head of State.

Reasons and Aspirations: Road to World War 2

Lebensraum 

• "Eastern Europe and Western Russia's Fertile Land and Mineral Resources"

• • Supply Germany with food and raw materials.

• • Provide outlets for surplus populations. 

Filters War Strategy 

• "Conquest of Eastern Europe and Russia"

• • Aim: Conquer living space post-France destruction.

• • Collaborated with Italy and abstained from Great Britain.

• Hitler's 1935 Wehrmacht Expansion

• • Expanded to 600,000 members, six times the Versailles Treaty limit.

• • Developed Luftwaffe air force.

• • Increased Kriegsmarine navy size

1936 Berlin Olympics 

• German Olympic Games:

• Built a 100,000-seat stadium and six gymnasiums.

• First televised games, reaching 41 countries.

• German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented.

• The president allowed black and Jewish participation and added a token participant.

Anschluss 

• Hitler's 1938 invasion of Austria

• German troops met no resistance.

• Both powers were not bound by treaty obligations.

• Both were not prepared to risk war.

Munich Conference 

• Emergency Meeting of European Powers in Munich, 1938

• Not including Czechoslovakia.

• Agreement reached on Hitler's terms.

• Signed by Germany, France, Britain, and Italy.

World War 2 

Invasion (and Division) of Poland

• Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 and staged false flag border incidents.

• The Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland on 17 September 1939, assuming the Polish state's ostensibly ceased existence.

German Invasion of Western Europe 

• German Seize of Norway and Denmark

• German forces seized Norway's capital and major ports.

• Germany obtained strategic Scandinavian bases for submarine warfare against Great Britain.

Battle of France

• German Forces Breakthrough at Sedan

• Breach of French defences.

• The northward movement towards the Channel Coast.

• Severance supply lines and communications.

Vichy Government 

• "Armistice of 22 June 1940: Marshal Philippe Pétain Signs"

• Marshal Pétain signs the Armistice.

• Vichy regime: authoritarian, xenophobic, anti-Semitic, corporatist, traditionalist.

• Germany retains two million French prisoners of war.

• French soldiers were held hostage for reduced military forces and heavy tribute.

Charles De Gaulle

• French Army Officer's Resistance Against German Occupation

• Opposed armistice decision.

• Flew to London.

• Broadcast message on British radio.

• They invited French military and political authorities to rejoin him in England.

Battle of Britain

• "Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Army's UK Defense"

• Defended the UK against Luftwaffe attacks.

• Air forces entirely fought the first major military campaign.

Advantages of Britain 

• British Air Power and Radar Techniques

• British Spitfire and Hurricane fighters were superior in speed, maneuverability, and firepower.

• Radar uses the reflected echo of radio waves to detect distant objects.

• Construction of twenty early warning stations along the Channel coast.

• British intelligence developed cipher machines to decode German radio messages.

• Germany stopped air attacks in May 1941.

War in the Mediterranean (Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Syria)

• Reza Shah's Unhappiness with Britain and the War

• Reza Shah sought to strengthen ties with Germany.

• Britain and the Soviet Union insisted on Iran's supply corridor to the Soviet Union.

• Reza Shah surrendered, abdicated, and died in 1944.

• Britain made Egypt the key Mediterranean defence.

• Germany and Italy invaded Cairo and Alexandria.

• Iraqi nationalism and pan-Arabism led to four colonies seeking independence.

• Britain attacked Iraq, defeated the Iraqi army, and placed Iraq under military occupation.

• Britain appointed a new government and restored the French mandate, but no independence.

• The Italian government deposed Mussolini in 1943 and secretly began negotiations with the Allies.

• The Allied invasion of Italy began in September 1943, with the Italian government signing surrender on the same day.

Operation Barbarossa

• German Invasion of the Soviet Union

• Initiated in June 1941.

•  4 million men, tanks, and aircraft were sent eastward.

• Stalin and their advisers were unprepared.

Pacific War

• Japan's Invasion and Occupation of Northern Indochina

• In September 1940, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina to block supply routes and position forces for Western war

• German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on Southeast Asian governments

• In July 1941, Japan threatened British and Dutch possessions in the Far East

• Western governments responded with a freeze on Japanese assets and an oil embargo

Internment Camps for Japanese-Original US Citizens 

• Executive Order 9066: Japanese Americans' Relocation

• Removal from communities and imprisonment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast.

• Nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were sent to "relocation" camps.

Stalingrad

• Battle of Stalingrad (August 23, 1942-February 2, 1943)

• It marked a turning point in the eastern front of the war and was a significant defeat for nazi Germany

Normandy 

• Located in northern France 

• Was the site of the D-Day landings on June 6th, 1944

• The largest amphibious invasion in history marked the beginning of the Allied liberation of Nazi-occupied Europe

Holocaust 

• Nazi Extermination Campaign in Europe

• The Red Army captures Auschwitz in Poland in January.

• Anglo-Americans liberates death camps in Dachau, Buchenwald, and Bergen-Belsen in April.

• Deliberate slaughter of over 6 million Jews.

• Massed dispatch of non-deadly Jews to gas chambers and crematoria.

• Establishment of death camps for Jews and subhuman groups.

Atom Bomb: Hiroshima and Nagasaki 

• Allies Prepared for the Japanese Invasion

• Allies planned a costly invasion of Japan.

• Preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign.

• 67 Japanese cities were devastated.

• Little Boy dropped on Hiroshima, reaffirming the Japanese government's commitment.

• Fat Man dropped on Nagasaki three days later.

• Atomic bombings killed 90,000–146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000–80,000 in Nagasaki.

United Nations and Cold War

Atlantic Charter 

• Roosevelt and Churchill's Secret Meeting in August 1941

• Discussed initiating an international peace effort.

• Developed the Atlantic Charter, outlining war goals and U.N. development.

• Major points:

  • U.S. and Britain agreed against territorial gains.

  • Opposed territorial changes against people's wishes.

  • Supported restoration of self-government to lost nations.

  • Advocated for access to raw materials for economic prosperity.

  • Advocated for international cooperation for improved living and working conditions.

  • Advocated for freedom of the seas.

  • Aim to abandon the use of force.

Four Policemen 

• Four Policemen's Role in UN

• Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and the US in their spheres of influence.

• Countries other than Four Policemen disarmed to prevent new wars.

• Only four policemen were allowed to possess weapons more powerful than a rifle.

• Roosevelt's UN concept includes an executive branch, an enforcement branch, and an international assembly.

San Francisco Conference 

• 46 nations, including four sponsors, were invited.

• Nations declared war on Germany and Japan.

• Subscribing to the 1942 United Nations Declaration.

• The British Foreign Affairs Minister issued invitations.

United Nations

• International Peace and Security

• Maintaining international peace and security.

• Developing friendly relations among nations.

• Achieving international cooperation in problem-solving.

• Harmonizing nations' actions towards common goals. 

Security Council: Permanent Members (right of Veto)

• USSR's Vetoed Complaints in the Middle East

• Complaint of armed invasion of Taiwan and aggression on Korea (1950) - USSR.

• Letter from the USA to Security Council President (1956) regarding Palestine question—USSR.

• India-Pakistan question (1957) - USSR.

• Kuwait's complaints about Iraq's threat to Kuwait's territorial integrity (1961)—USSR.

• Palestine Question (1963) - USSR.

• Middle East situation (1972) - USSR.

• Middle East situation (1984) - USSR.

• Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994)—Russian Federation.

• Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999)—China.

• Middle East, including the Palestinian question, 2003, USA.

• Middle East: Syria (2011); China and Russian Federation.

Red Scare

• 1947 House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) Impact on Hollywood

• Forced hundreds to reject left-wing political beliefs.

• This led to over 500 job losses.

• Blacklisted writers, directors, and actors unable to work for over a decade.

Chinese Civil War (Mao)

• WW2 China's Division and Conflict

• China was divided into nationalist, communist, and Japanese-occupied regions.

• Japan's defeat sparked a race between Nationalists and Communists for control over resources and population centers.

• Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek accused Communists of rebellion.

• Internal strife grew due to competition between the US and the Soviet Union.

• Communist-held territory increased from one-tenth of China in 1946 to one-third in 1948.

• Nationalists financed the war by printing more money, destroying the purchasing power of their currency.

• Strikes, student demonstrations, and labour unrest became commonplace.

• Communists established the People's Republic of China in 1949, forcing the Republic of China leadership to retreat to Taiwan.

Greek Civil War

• Greek Guerrilla War and German Occupation

• The German occupation was resisted by communist-controlled EAM-ELAS and EDES.

• Civil war broke out in Athens in December 1944.

• Communists were defeated, and King was restored in 1946.

• Communists reopened a full-scale guerrilla war.

• Hellenic Army of the Greek government (supported by the UK and US) and the Democratic Army of Greece (supported by Bulgaria, Albania, Yugoslavia, and the Soviet Union) from 1946 to 1949.

• War of Ideologies.

• Greece's Government Forces' Victory in 1946-48

• Despite initial hardships, they won due to increased American aid.

• Western-allied victory led to Greece's NATO membership in 1952.

• Defined ideological balance in the Aegean Sea during the Cold War.

Truman Doctrine 

• US Doctrine on Turkey's Response to Soviet Pressures

• Moscow claimed eastern Anatolia and demanded greater control over the Turkish Straits.

• The USA aimed to prevent a Communist insurgency in Greece.

• Domino Theory: If not intervened, the Soviet Union would control Greece and other regions.

• The USA provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey.

• USA aid to Turkey totaled around 3 billion USD between 1947 and 1960.

Marshall Plan 

• Marshall Plan Overview

• American initiative in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe.

• Aimed to counter post-WWII poverty, unemployment, and dislocation.

• Transferred over $13 billion in economic recovery programs to Western European economies.

NATO 

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• Intergovernmental military alliance between 28 European and 2 North American countries.

• Implements April 1949 North Atlantic Treaty.

European Coal and Steel Community 

• "Palace of Paris Treaty:

• Established in 1951 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.

• Created a common market for coal and steel.

• Provided freely set prices, free product movement, no customs duties, taxes, subsidies, or restrictive practices."

State of Israel 

• Ottoman Land Code of 1858 and Jewish National Fund's Role

• The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 allocated a budget to massive land purchases.

• 250,000 immigrants arrived between 1929 and 1939 due to Nazism in Germany.

• UN announced a plan to divide Palestine into Arab and Jewish states in 1947.

• UN Resolution 181 proposed partitioning Palestine into Jewish and Palestinian states, rejected by Palestinians and Arabs.

• The State of Israel was proclaimed in Tel Aviv on 14 May 1948, recognized by US President Trump.

• The British Mandate ends on 15 May 1948, bringing the declaration of the State of Israel into effect.

Korean War 

• Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and ruled until 1945.

• Post-war, the US and Soviet Union divided Korea into two zones of occupation.

• In 1948, the occupation zones became two sovereign states: Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north and Republic of Korea in the south.

• Both states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of Korea, with neither accepting the border as permanent.

•  The Korean War began in June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.

•  North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union, while South Korea was supported by the United Nations.

• The UN Security Council denounced North Korea's invasion and authorized the formation of the UN Command.

•  China and the Soviet Union made a deal, promising support for the Chinese military.

• China attacked the UN forces invading North Korea.

• The US and Soviet jets engaged, but never attacked each other.

• The Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, creating the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).

Oil: Iran-Mosaddiq-AIOC

• Middle Eastern Oil Conflict and Nationalization Struggle

• American oil companies controlled 42% of Middle Eastern oil by the mid-to-late 1940s.

• The Middle East became the primary oil source for Western Europe and Japan between the 1950s and 1970s.

• Oil was a conflict between the West and the region's countries, not between East and West.

• Mosaddiq in Iran sought to nationalize oil companies in 1951, leading to the formation of the National Front.

• AIOC, a state within a state, was a major concern, with foreign management and the majority of its stock owned by the British government.

• Iran's oil industry was nationalized in 1951, and Mosaddiq became Prime Minister.

• AIOC called for a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil, which the USA joined in 1952.

• Iran's economic crisis resulted from the loss of oil revenues.

• Mosaddiq's control over the army led to the rise of the leftist party TUDEH.

• A military coup overthrew Mosaddiq in 1953, and an oil dispute was settled, restoring Iranian oil's international market position.

•  Between 1953 and 1979, Iran had no political freedom, with the Shah controlling everything.

Nasser-Pan-Arabism 

• Nasser's Military Initiatives

• Believed in the expulsion of the British and the power dismantling of local collaborators.

• Led the Free Officers Movement post-Arab-Israeli War defeat.

• Executed a nearly bloodless military coup against King Farouk in 1952.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal

• Egypt's Military Coup and Revolution

• 1952 military coup in Egypt, replacing one regime with another.

• Colonel Nasser led the coup, a group of pragmatic nationalists and military bureaucrats.

• In 1953, Egypt declared a Republic, abolished monarchy, and banned political parties.

• Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, promising to use revenues for development projects.

• In October 1956, Israel attacked Sinai, with Britain and France supporting it.

• The USA and USSR condemned the attack, forcing withdrawal from Egypt. Egypt retained the Suez Canal.

Middle East and Cold War 

Eisenhower Doctrine 

• Policy Promises for Resistance to Communism

• Economic and military assistance to resist communism.

• Authorized US force deployment for Middle Eastern states.

• Protects independence from armed aggression from international communist nations.

Arab-Israeli Wars (1948-1956-1967-1973)

• Israel's Arab War 1948

• Attacked by Egyptians, Iraqis, Jordanians, Syrians, Lebanese, Saudi, and Yemeni troops.

• 8-month war.

• Israel won and annexed more territory.

• More Jews and Palestinian Arabs sought refuge.

• Camps established

• 1949 Armistice Divides West Bank and Gaza Strip

•  Israel separated from Palestine.

• Jordan ruled the east Bank and East Jerusalem from 1948 to 67.

•  Gaza Strip under Egyptian military.

• Israel took control of western Jerusalem.

• Six-Day War: Israel-Arab States Conflict

• In May 1967, the USSR and Syria falsely claimed Israel was preparing a military attack on Syria.

•  Nasser, a Pan-Arab leader, deployed troops in Sinai, blocking Israeli ships.

• On June 5, 1967, Israel launched Operation Focus, an aerial attack on Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq.

• Israeli forces stormed across the border into the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip.

• Jordan began shelling Israeli positions in Jerusalem, leading to a devastating counterattack.

• On June 7, Israeli troops captured the Old City of Jerusalem.

• On June 9, Israeli tanks and infantry advanced on the Golan Heights in Syria, successfully capturing it the next day.

PLO

• "PLO Formation and Goals"

• Formated at the Arab League Summit in 1964.

• Comprises various Palestinian political groups.

• Aims to regain Palestine from Israelis.

1973 Oil Crisis 

• OPEC Overview

• OPEC is a group of 12 major oil-exporting nations founded in 1960.

• Founding members include Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.

• Expansion included Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, and Ecuador.

• OPEC member states reduced oil production in response to Egypt and Syria's oil embargo.

• Saudi Arabia suspended oil shipments to the US, leading to increased oil prices.

• The embargo was lifted in May 1974, resuming oil supply.

• Western Europe and Japan began supporting the Arab cause.

• Inflation-adjusted oil prices increased from $25.97 per barrel in 1973 to $46.35 per barrel in 1974.

1979 Iran Revolution 

• Tehran's Revolution:

• 2 million people protested against unarmed killings.

• The monarchy was replaced with the Islamic Republic.

• The Constitution granted power to Ulama.

• Khomeini appealed to Iraqi Shia for overthrow.

• Saddam viewed Iran as a threat.

Iran-Iraq War

• Iraq's Political and Military Developments

• Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Gulf states supported Iraq.

• In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, leading to Iran's attack.

• Iraq's oil revenues were destroyed.

• Iraq borrowed money from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

• The USA provided military intelligence from 1984.

• Iraq used chemical weapons against Kurds in Halabja.

• Khomeini accepted a truce in 1988.

Detente (1962-1975)

Cuban Revolution 

• Cuba's Political Evolution

• The U.S. military administered Cuba until 1902 when it became a republic.

• Batista, a rising military star, served as president from 1940–44 and ran for a second term in 1952.

• Castro, a young lawyer and activist, ran for Congress before Batista seized power.

• Castro led a raid against army barracks in 1953, leading to his imprisonment.

• Castro's trial and imprisonment built his reputation as a revolutionary leader.

• Castro's Cuban Exile Movement

• Castro, released in 1955, headed to Mexico.

• Organized Cuban exiles into a movement.

• In November 1956, 82 men sailed from Mexico aboard Granma.

• Most were killed, and 20 escaped, including Fidel Castro and Ernesto "Che" Guevara.

• Cuban Revolution: Guerrilla Campaign and Suspended Constitutional Protections

•  Batista's guerrilla campaign against more armed forces.

• Suspended constitutional protections for Cubans, including freedom of speech and assembly.

• Called for a major military offensive against rebels in the Sierra Maestra mountains.

• Rebels swiftly turned back the offensive, forcing army withdrawal.

• International media's favourable press coverage led to the US withdrawal of support.

• Batista fled Cuba in January 1959, implementing a socialist regime and forming ties with the Soviet Union.

Bay of Pigs Invasion 

• 1961 Cuban Exiles Landing Operation

• Failed by Cuban exiles opposing Fidel Castro's revolution.

• Invasion lost strategic initiative.

• The international community discovered the invasion.

• U.S. President Kennedy withheld further air support.

Cuban Missile Crisis 

• US-Soviet Confrontation: An International Crisis

• American missile deployments in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet missile deployments in Cuba.

• The Soviets agreed to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter future invasions.

• Kennedy ordered a naval "quarantine" to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba.The 

• The US refused to deliver offensive weapons to Cuba and demanded the dismantling and return of weapons in Cuba.

• Negotiations highlighted the need for a clear, direct communication line between the two superpowers.

Vietnam War

• Vietnam's Historical and Political Evolution

• Vietnam was under French colonial rule since the 19th century.

• During WWII, Japanese forces invaded Vietnam, leading to the formation of the Viet Minh.

• After WWII, Japan withdrew its forces, leaving the French-educated Emperor in control.

• Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh forces took control of Hanoi and declared a Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).

• The French-backed Emperor established Vietnam in July 1949, with Saigon as its capital.

• Armed conflict between Northern and Southern armies continued until the northern Viet Minh's victory.

• The 1954 Treaty split Vietnam along the 17th Parallel.

• The U.S. assumed financial and military support for the South Vietnamese state.

• The Viet Cong, a South Vietnamese common front, initiated a guerrilla war.

• The Domino Theory posited that if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, many would follow.

• The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave Johnson broad war-making powers and increased troop levels.

• In 1966, large areas of South Vietnam were designated as "free-fire zones."

• 1968 Tet Offensive and Vietnamization

• North Vietnam launched the Tet Offensive, causing attacks on over 100 South Vietnamese cities.

• President Johnson halted the bombing in North Vietnam due to declining approval ratings.

• Vietnamization involved withdrawing U.S. troops, increasing aerial and artillery bombardment, and providing South Vietnamese training.

• My Lai massacre: U.S. soldiers killed over 400 civilians.

• Anti-war protests in the USA increased from 20,000 in 1969 to 25,000 in 1970.

• A joint U.S.-South Vietnamese operation invaded Cambodia in 1970, leading to the South Vietnamese invasion of Laos.

• Violation of international law sparked protests on college campuses.

• North Vietnam demanded a ceasefire, leading to the Paris Peace Accords of 1973.

• War continued until April 30, 1975, when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon.

• Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976.

Vietnam War Protests 

• 1967 US Troops in Vietnam

• Nearly 500,000 troops.

• 15,058 killed, 109,527 wounded.

• 100,000 protesters at Lincoln Memorial.

• 30,000 march on the Pentagon.

Rosa Parks 

• Rosa Parks' 1955 Montgomery Bus Arrest

• Parks, secretary of the NAACP, refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery bus.

• Montgomery passed a city ordinance in 1900 to segregate bus passengers by race.

• Over time, black riders were required to move when no white-only seats were available.

• The first four rows of seats were reserved for whites.

• "Colored" sections for black people were generally in the rear of the bus.

Martin Luther King Jr. 

• Montgomery Bus Boycott: Economic Impact and Protests

• Economic strain on public transit and downtown business owners.

• Martin Luther King Jr. was chosen as a protest leader.

• Aimed for equality and human rights for African Americans, economically disadvantaged, and victims of injustice.

• Travelled globally, giving lectures on nonviolent protest and civil rights.

• Advocated for justice everywhere, highlighting the inescapable network of mutuality.

• Painful experience revealed that freedom is not voluntarily given by oppressors but must be demanded by the oppressed.

Woodstock 

• 1960s Social Protest Movements in Upstate New York

• Opposition to the Vietnam War.

• Push for free love and personal autonomy.

• Claim for civil rights and equality.

• Woodstock is a symbol of Vietnam War divides.

• Young people gather for peace and music, fighting alongside their peers.

Latin America and Africa and the Cold War

Operation PBSuccess-Guatemala 

• American Administration's View of Guatemalan Government as Communist

• Operation PBS Success: Detailed lists of government members to be assassinated if a coup was planned.

• CIA established training camps in Nicaragua and Honduras.

• Arbenz secretly acquired weapons from Czechoslovakia in 1954, marking the first Soviet-era weapon shipment to the Americas.

• Psychological Warfare: The U.S. Information Agency (USIA) wrote articles and distributed leaflets on Guatemala.

• In 1954, Arbenz was removed from power, reforms nullified, and United Fruit regained expropriated lands.

School of the Americas

• U.S. Service Schools' Latin American Training

• 1946: Administrative tasks for training Latin Americans in U.S. service schools.

• 1961: Kennedy ordered "anti-communist" counterinsurgency training.

• Training offered included riot control, special warfare, jungle warfare, intelligence, civil affairs, and public information.

• Between 1970 and 1979, 63% of Latin American cadets attended the school.

Chile-Allende 

• 1970 Presidency Win: Popular Unity Coalition

• Nationalized large-scale industries like copper mining and banking.

• Managed healthcare, education, and free milk program in Chile.

Operation Condor 

• Condor's Political Repression and State Terrorism

• Implemented in November 1975 by right-wing dictatorships in South America.

• Victims included dissidents, leftists, union leaders, priests, nuns, students, teachers, intellectuals, and suspected guerrillas.

• Key members included governments in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, and later Brazil.

• Created a centralized database on guerrilla movements, left-wing parties, trade unionists, religious groups, liberal politicians, and enemies of authoritarian regimes.

• Identified and attacked regional political "enemies."

• Operated to eliminate persons in other countries in the Americas and Europe.

• Targets were surveilled, then snatched and spirited away to a secret prison.

• Terrorists were held and tortured, including beatings, waterboarding, mock executions, electrocution, rape, and more.

• Family members were sometimes kidnapped and tortured, or even stolen.

Economic and Cultural Dimensions of the Cold War 

Soviet Planned Economy 

• Planned Economy and Market Abolitionism

• A planned economy involves investment, production, and capital goods allocation based on economy-wide economic plans.

• Market abolitionism advocates for the complete elimination of the economic market from society.

• State ownership of production means, collective farming, and industrial manufacturing are key.

• Planning ministries define economic inputs, completion schedules, and wholesale and retail prices for every enterprise.

• Communism theory argues for collective ownership of capital, with minor exceptions.

• Soviet families struggled to afford necessities like refrigerators and winter clothes, costing an entire month's wages.

End of Cold War

Soviet-Afghan War

• Saur Revolution and Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan

• 1978 coup led by the Afghan Communist Party.

•  Initiated radical modernization and land reforms.

• Unpopular among traditional rural populations and established power structures.

• The general secretary of the Communist Party was assassinated.

• Soviet deployment of the 40th Army across the border.

• UN General Assembly protests Soviet intervention.

• Afghan insurgents received significant support from Pakistan, the US, and the UK.

• International Sanctions and Embargoes Against Soviet Union

• The international community imposed sanctions and embargoes.

• The mid-1980s saw increased fighting and high military and diplomatic costs.

• Gorbachev announced the withdrawal in 1987, lasting until 1989.

Mujahideen 

• Afghan Mujahideen's International Contributions

• Thousands of Muslim volunteers from various countries joined the resistance.

• The majority of international fighters were Arabs, later known as Afghan Arabs.

• Osama bin Laden was a prominent Arab financier and militant.

Perestroika 

• Soviet Reconstruction and Economic Reforms

• Restructuring of Soviet political and economic system to end the Era of Stagnation.

• Aimed to improve the efficiency of socialism by adopting liberal economics.

• 1987 Law on State Enterprise: State enterprises are free to determine output levels based on consumer demand.

• 1988 Law on Cooperatives: Allows collective ownership of businesses in services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors.

• Foreign economic reforms facilitated joint ventures with Soviet ministries, state enterprises, and cooperatives.

Glasnost 

• "Era of Glasnost" in Soviet Union

• Increased transparency and openness in government.

• Gorbachev's administration committed to public discussion of system problems and solutions.

• Greater contact between Soviet citizens and the Western world, loosening travel restrictions.

Fukuyama, end of History Thesis 

• 20th-Century Ideological Violence

• Liberalism clashed with absolutism, bolshevism, fascism, and updated Marxism.

•  Resulted in ideological violence, threatening nuclear war.

Huntington: Clash of Civilizations 

• New World Conflict Sources

• Conflict will not be primarily ideological or economic.

• Cultural divisions will dominate the human conflict.

• Civilizational conflict will be the latest phase in modern conflict evolution.

• Civilizations and Their Interactions

• Civilizations are characterized by history, language, culture, tradition, and religion.

• People from different civilizations have different views on God and man, individuals and groups, citizens and states, parents and children, husband and wife, and the importance of rights, responsibilities, liberty, authority, equality, and hierarchy.

• Interactions between different civilizations are increasing, intensifying civilization consciousness and awareness of differences and commonalities.

•  Economic modernization and social change are separating people from longstanding local identities and weakening the nation-state as a source of identity.

• Religion has moved in to fill this gap, often in the form of "fundamentalist" movements.

• The West is at a peak of power, but a return to roots phenomenon is occurring among non-Western civilizations.

• Cultural characteristics and differences are less mutable than political and economic ones.

• Economic regionalism is increasing, with differences in culture and religion creating differences over policy issues.

• Western efforts to promote democracy and liberalism, maintain military predominance, and advance economic interests engender countering responses from other civilizations.

• Western ideas of individualism, liberalism, constitutionalism, human rights, equality, liberty, the rule of law, democracy, free markets, and the separation of church and state often have little resonance in Islamic, Confucian, Japanese, Hindu, Buddhist, or Orthodox cultures.

History Exam Review 

End of the 19th Century and The World in 1900

Reasons for Imperialism and Colonialism 

• Imperialism: a practice by which a country extends its power and influence over other countries

• Colonialism: a practice of acquiring and maintaining control over a territory 

• Western economic interests seek overseas markets for industrial production, investment capital, and raw materials.

• Christian missionaries' activities in the colonial world required military protection due to violent resistance.

• Strategic advantage through recruitable military manpower and overseas bases.

•  National pride and search for national prestige.

Importance of the  Suez Canal

• Britain's Influence on Asia

•  The sea route was viewed as a "lifeline" for Asian possessions.

• Invasion of Egypt in 1882 and control of the Suez Canal.

• Customary food production limit of 30%.

•  The majority of imported foodstuffs and raw materials are from Asian and Pacific possessions.

White Man’s Burden 

• The duties of Western powers are: 

  • Providing superior culture to colonized people.

  • Spiritual inspiration from Christianity.

  •  Enlightened administration benefits

British-French Dominance 

• France sought psychological compensation for territorial conquest in the non-European world.

• French control over Africa, Southeast Asia, and South Pacific island chains

• France-Britain Cooperation

• Recognized British occupation of Egypt

• Britain endorsed French designs on Morocco

• Cooperated to control German power expansion in Europe and the colonial world

German Dominance 

• Germany became dominant in Europe

• 1897 German Kaiser's Weltpolitik

• Projected Germany's power into global empire competition

• Aimed to project military, economic, and political influence

•  Seizes Chinese port of Kiao-Chow for future Far Eastern fleet.

• Kaiser declared himself the "protector" of 300 million Muslims in 1898.

•  Challenges British and French positions in North Africa and the Middle East.

Russian Dominance 

• Russian Empire's Expansionist Frontier

• Approaching the Mediterranean, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, and Pacific.

• Pressing against the competing interests of other states.

Sick Man of Europe 

• Ottoman Empire's Influence on the Balkans

• Istanbul/Constantinople, Eastern Orthodoxy's spiritual capital, under Ottoman control.

• Relied on their reputation as "sick men of Europe" by relinquishing Balkan Slavic political authority.

• Confirmed independence of Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro.

Russo-Japanese War 

• Japanese expansion led to conflict with Russia.

•  The Japanese navy defeated the Russian fleet at Port Arthur.

•  The Japanese army defeated the Russian army in Manchuria.

Results of the Russo-Japanese War

• Nationalist revolutions in Persia (1905), Turkey (1908), and China (1911).

•  Undermining the political authority of the Romanov dynasty.

•  The gradual rapprochement between the Tsarist regime and Great Britain was due to Russian seapower destruction.

•  Germany left as a potential threat to Britain's seas mastery.

United States-Dominance 

• Pan-American Union: US-dominated, European-emancipated hemispheric political system

• US Acquisitions in Central America

• US firms acquired agricultural and subsoil mineral resources.

• Sugar-producing interests gained a monopoly on the Cuban sugar cane crop

• United Fruit Company established a large "banana empire" in Central America

• US firms controlled petroleum resources, Chilean copper, Bolivian tin, and other industrial raw materials

Panama Canal

•  Supported by the American government, Panama was recognized as an independent republic.

• The US authorized the construction of a fifty-mile canal across the isthmus in 1904.

• Cuba and Panama included US intervention clauses in constitutions to protect independence and social order.

• Both countries authorized the construction of American bases on their territories.

World War I and the End of Empires 

German Economic and Military Power 

• Convenient marriage between large-scale agriculture and heavy industry.

• Promoted expansion of heavy industry without threatening the former's socioeconomic position

• Key sectors of heavy industry are dominated by giant firms with unprecedented production and distribution control.

• Losing strategic advantage over France and Russia

Schlieffen Plan 

• Schlieffen Plan (1906-1906): Concentration of German Military Power

• Aimed to defeat the French army within six weeks.

• German forces transferred to the eastern front to meet the Russian army

• German numerical superiority over France.

• Russian Empire's inability to deploy a superior army before a westward blow.

•  Extended national military service from two to three years.

•  Aims to field a frontline army equal to the German army by 1916.

• Russian government initiates strategic railway construction.

Goals of Germany 

• Permanent annexation of France's fortresses along the German frontier

• Occupation of major English Channel ports

• Financial imposition to prevent future armed force reconstruction

• Systematic pushback of Russia from Germany's eastern frontier

• Establishment of imperial Germany as Europe's hegemonic power

Gallipoli Campaign

•  The allied fleet failed to force Dardanelles

• Amphibian landing on Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915

•  Ottoman forces held the Allies back from objectives

• The campaign caused significant damage to Ottoman resources

•  Allies better equipped to replace losses than Ottomans

• Allied attempt to secure passage through Dardanelles unsuccessful

Arab Revolt 

• Achieved a Great Power guarantee for Husayn's ambitions.

• Britain acquired a Muslim ally.

• Arabs joined British forces and defeated the Ottomans.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

• Divided the Arab Middle East

• Recognized French claims to Syria, granting France "direct control" along the Syrian coast

• Guaranteed British position in Iraq

• Britain gained "direct control" over southern Mesopotamia

• Promised Independent Arab State to Husayn, a confederation of states in British and French indirect influence zones

Balfour Declaration 

• Britain agreed to favour the Jewish national home in Palestine

• Conveyed to Rothschild, a prominent British Zionist

• Aimed to appeal to Jewish people and secure Suez Canal control

Bolshevik Revolution 

• Lenin granted safe railway transit from neutral Switzerland to the Russian capital.l

• Lenin's program: immediate war cessation, possible peace with Central Powers

Brest-Litocsk Agreement 

• A peace treaty was signed on March 3, 1918, between central powers and Soviet Russia. 

• This ended Russia's involvement in World War I 

• It was negotiated and signed at Brest-Litovsk

Entrance of the US to War 

• The British navy drove German warships and merchantmen from the high seas.

• Forced Germany to rely on neutral shipping for foreign trade.

• The blockade severely limited Germany's access to neutral supply sources and transport methods.

• Smaller and poorly trained than the Belgian army.

• In 1918, American military and naval forces expanded to 4.8 million.

• Contributed significantly to the Anglo-French Western Frontt effort.

Post-World War I World 

1918 Influenza (Spanish Flu)

Principles of Wilson 

War Causes:

• Secret diplomacy.

• Oppression of ethnic minorities by dominant nationalities.

•  The autocracy system allows the privileged elite to monopolize power.

European Strategy for Public Opinion: 

• Maximize public influence through open discussion of international issues.

•  Minimize secretive intrigues by imperialistically inclined national leaders.

• Redraw Europe's map based on the national self-determination principle.

• Democratize internal political institutions to remove autocratic constraints on public opinion.

League of Nations 

• Each member state is represented by one vote.

• The council includes permanent seats for delegates from five great powers: England, France, Italy, the USA, and Japan.

• Permanent members can veto proposals threatening national interests

• British and French Colonial Empires

• Treated as single political units.

• Unrecognized national self-determination for non-European populations.

New States in Central and Eastern Europe (Problems)

• 1 million German-speaking citizens integrated.

• Satisfied need for Baltic seaport access.

• "German-speaking Austrians Forbidden from Joining Germany"

• Unification is perceived as a security threat to Eastern Europe.

• Citizens of Austria were explicitly forbidden.

Treaty of Versailles—New Europe 

• Peace treaty that officially ended World War I 

• Signed on June 28, 1919

American Withdrawal from World Politics 

• The United States Senate refused to accord its constitutionally prescribed consent to the three pacts signed by President Wilson.

Crisis in the World: 1920’s

Hyperinflation in Germany 

• 1922 Bread Price Trends

• 163 marks in 1922

• 1,500,000 marks in September 1923

• 200,000,000,000 marks in November 1923

• Peak of hyperinflation.

Economic Nationalism 

• Economic self-sufficiency benefits include reducing dependence on foreign markets and supply sources.

• The number of independent economic units in Europe increased from twenty to twenty-seven.

• Urban centers and industrial sectors were separated from the traditional raw material source.s

• New frontiers often cut across existing transportation means, causing confusion and inefficiency.

• Political elites of new nations used discriminatory practices to nurture industries, inhibiting intra-European commerce post-war.

• Western hemisphere and Far East nations established domestic industries to produce substitutes for manufactured products unavailable from European belligerent.s

• Underdeveloped nations turned to the o US or Japan for industrial products.

• Highest duty level in modern American history.

Locarno Treaties- 1925 

• Western European Allied powers sought a post-war territorial settlement in exchange for normalizing relations with the defeated German Reich.

•  Locarno divided Europe's borders into western and eastern categories.

• Mutual guarantee of Belgium, France, and Germany's frontiers by Britain and Italy.

• Arbitration treaties between Germany and Belgium, Germany and France, and similar treaties between Germany and Poland and Germany and Czechoslovakia.

Flappers

• Flappers are portrayed as stylish party girls

• Practiced public smoking, alcohol consumption, and jazz club dancing

• Demonstrated sexual freedom challenging Victorian morality

Prohibition

• Set rules for the federal ban on alcoholic beverages.

• Aim to reduce crime, corruption, social issues, tax burden, and improve health.

•  Not all alcohol is banned; religious use is permitted.

•  Post-ban, criminal gangs controlled beer and liquor supply.

• New opposition to Prohibition emerged by the late1920s.

Crisis in the World: 1930’s

Wall Street-Stock Market Crash, 1929

• The 1929 Stock Market Crisis

• The stock market, centred at the New York Stock Exchange, was a hub of reckless speculation.

• The market reached its peak in August 1929.

• The American economy entered a mild recession in the summer of 1929, leading to a stock market crash.

• On October 24, 1929, overpriced shares were sold, leading to a record 12.9 million shares traded.

• The crash resulted in millions of shares becoming worthless, and investors who had bought stocks "on margin" were completely wiped out.

• The downturn led to a slowdown in production, worker firings, and increased homelessness.

• Farmers were forced to leave their crops rotting in the fields.

Great Depression 

• The crash resulted in millions of shares becoming worthless, and investors who had bought stocks "on margin" were completely wiped out.

• The downturn led to a slowdown in production, worker firings, and increased homelessness.

• Farmers were forced to leave their crops rotting in the fields.

New Deal in the USA

• "New Deal" Programs and Regulations

• Enacted by President Roosevelt between 1933-1939.

• Included "3 R's": relief for the unemployed and poor, economic recovery, and financial system reform.

Japanese Militarism 

• Ikki Kita's 20th-Century Political Theory

• Advocated a hybrid of state society and "Asian nationalism."

• Blended ultranationalist movement with Japanese militarism.

• Extreme rights became influential in the Japanese government and society.

Spanish Civil War 

• Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

• Republicans fought against Nationalists, led by General Franco.

• Republicans, communists, and anarchists allied with the Second Spanish Republic.

• Nationalists won the war, ending in 1939.

• Franco ruled until he died in 1975.

• Germany and Italy supported Franco.

Mussolini in Italy: Rise of Fascism 

• 1921 Mussolini Speech: Aryan and Mediterranean Race

• Mussolini referred to Italians as the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan Race.

• He argued the world was divided into a hierarchy of races.

• History was a Darwinian struggle for power and territory between various "racial masses."

Rise of Hitler 

• Hitler's Admiration of Italian Fascists

• Modelled himself and the Nazi Party on Mussolini and Fascists.

• Nazis, led by Hitler and Ernst Ludendorff, attempted the "March on Berlin, "modelled on March on Rome.

• Failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich in November 1923.

Beer Hall Putsch 

• Hitler and SA stormed Munich's 3,000-person public meeting.

• Hitler declared a national revolution and a new government formation.on

Mein Kampf

• Hitler's Prison Dilemma in Mein Kampf

• Defines Hitler's racial-based society transformation plan.

• Equivalents Jews as "germs" and "international poisoners."

Nazi Partys Rise to Power

• Hitler pledged respect for the state's authority.

•  Promised political power through the democratic process

Reichstag Fire 

• "Rosstag Fire in 1933: Hindenburg Signs Nazi Decree"

• Fire set on Reichstag building.

• Nazis suspend basic rights.

• Allows detention without trial.

Night of the Long Knives 

• Urged by Göring and Himmler.

• Aim to consolidate power.

• Alleviated military concerns about Ernst Röhm and Sturmabteilung.

• Nazis' paramilitary organization, "Brownshirts.".

• Hindenburg's death.

• Hitler became Head of State.

Reasons and Aspirations: Road to World War 2

Lebensraum 

• "Eastern Europe and Western Russia's Fertile Land and Mineral Resources"

• • Supply Germany with food and raw materials.

• • Provide outlets for surplus populations. 

Filters War Strategy 

• "Conquest of Eastern Europe and Russia"

• • Aim: Conquer living space post-France destruction.

• • Collaborated with Italy and abstained from Great Britain.

• Hitler's 1935 Wehrmacht Expansion

• • Expanded to 600,000 members, six times the Versailles Treaty limit.

• • Developed Luftwaffe air force.

• • Increased Kriegsmarine navy size

1936 Berlin Olympics 

• German Olympic Games:

• Built a 100,000-seat stadium and six gymnasiums.

• First televised games, reaching 41 countries.

• German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented.

• The president allowed black and Jewish participation and added a token participant.

Anschluss 

• Hitler's 1938 invasion of Austria

• German troops met no resistance.

• Both powers were not bound by treaty obligations.

• Both were not prepared to risk war.

Munich Conference 

• Emergency Meeting of European Powers in Munich, 1938

• Not including Czechoslovakia.

• Agreement reached on Hitler's terms.

• Signed by Germany, France, Britain, and Italy.

World War 2 

Invasion (and Division) of Poland

• Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 and staged false flag border incidents.

• The Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland on 17 September 1939, assuming the Polish state's ostensibly ceased existence.

German Invasion of Western Europe 

• German Seize of Norway and Denmark

• German forces seized Norway's capital and major ports.

• Germany obtained strategic Scandinavian bases for submarine warfare against Great Britain.

Battle of France

• German Forces Breakthrough at Sedan

• Breach of French defences.

• The northward movement towards the Channel Coast.

• Severance supply lines and communications.

Vichy Government 

• "Armistice of 22 June 1940: Marshal Philippe Pétain Signs"

• Marshal Pétain signs the Armistice.

• Vichy regime: authoritarian, xenophobic, anti-Semitic, corporatist, traditionalist.

• Germany retains two million French prisoners of war.

• French soldiers were held hostage for reduced military forces and heavy tribute.

Charles De Gaulle

• French Army Officer's Resistance Against German Occupation

• Opposed armistice decision.

• Flew to London.

• Broadcast message on British radio.

• They invited French military and political authorities to rejoin him in England.

Battle of Britain

• "Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Army's UK Defense"

• Defended the UK against Luftwaffe attacks.

• Air forces entirely fought the first major military campaign.

Advantages of Britain 

• British Air Power and Radar Techniques

• British Spitfire and Hurricane fighters were superior in speed, maneuverability, and firepower.

• Radar uses the reflected echo of radio waves to detect distant objects.

• Construction of twenty early warning stations along the Channel coast.

• British intelligence developed cipher machines to decode German radio messages.

• Germany stopped air attacks in May 1941.

War in the Mediterranean (Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Syria)

• Reza Shah's Unhappiness with Britain and the War

• Reza Shah sought to strengthen ties with Germany.

• Britain and the Soviet Union insisted on Iran's supply corridor to the Soviet Union.

• Reza Shah surrendered, abdicated, and died in 1944.

• Britain made Egypt the key Mediterranean defence.

• Germany and Italy invaded Cairo and Alexandria.

• Iraqi nationalism and pan-Arabism led to four colonies seeking independence.

• Britain attacked Iraq, defeated the Iraqi army, and placed Iraq under military occupation.

• Britain appointed a new government and restored the French mandate, but no independence.

• The Italian government deposed Mussolini in 1943 and secretly began negotiations with the Allies.

• The Allied invasion of Italy began in September 1943, with the Italian government signing surrender on the same day.

Operation Barbarossa

• German Invasion of the Soviet Union

• Initiated in June 1941.

•  4 million men, tanks, and aircraft were sent eastward.

• Stalin and their advisers were unprepared.

Pacific War

• Japan's Invasion and Occupation of Northern Indochina

• In September 1940, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina to block supply routes and position forces for Western war

• German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on Southeast Asian governments

• In July 1941, Japan threatened British and Dutch possessions in the Far East

• Western governments responded with a freeze on Japanese assets and an oil embargo

Internment Camps for Japanese-Original US Citizens 

• Executive Order 9066: Japanese Americans' Relocation

• Removal from communities and imprisonment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast.

• Nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were sent to "relocation" camps.

Stalingrad

• Battle of Stalingrad (August 23, 1942-February 2, 1943)

• It marked a turning point in the eastern front of the war and was a significant defeat for nazi Germany

Normandy 

• Located in northern France 

• Was the site of the D-Day landings on June 6th, 1944

• The largest amphibious invasion in history marked the beginning of the Allied liberation of Nazi-occupied Europe

Holocaust 

• Nazi Extermination Campaign in Europe

• The Red Army captures Auschwitz in Poland in January.

• Anglo-Americans liberates death camps in Dachau, Buchenwald, and Bergen-Belsen in April.

• Deliberate slaughter of over 6 million Jews.

• Massed dispatch of non-deadly Jews to gas chambers and crematoria.

• Establishment of death camps for Jews and subhuman groups.

Atom Bomb: Hiroshima and Nagasaki 

• Allies Prepared for the Japanese Invasion

• Allies planned a costly invasion of Japan.

• Preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign.

• 67 Japanese cities were devastated.

• Little Boy dropped on Hiroshima, reaffirming the Japanese government's commitment.

• Fat Man dropped on Nagasaki three days later.

• Atomic bombings killed 90,000–146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000–80,000 in Nagasaki.

United Nations and Cold War

Atlantic Charter 

• Roosevelt and Churchill's Secret Meeting in August 1941

• Discussed initiating an international peace effort.

• Developed the Atlantic Charter, outlining war goals and U.N. development.

• Major points:

  • U.S. and Britain agreed against territorial gains.

  • Opposed territorial changes against people's wishes.

  • Supported restoration of self-government to lost nations.

  • Advocated for access to raw materials for economic prosperity.

  • Advocated for international cooperation for improved living and working conditions.

  • Advocated for freedom of the seas.

  • Aim to abandon the use of force.

Four Policemen 

• Four Policemen's Role in UN

• Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and the US in their spheres of influence.

• Countries other than Four Policemen disarmed to prevent new wars.

• Only four policemen were allowed to possess weapons more powerful than a rifle.

• Roosevelt's UN concept includes an executive branch, an enforcement branch, and an international assembly.

San Francisco Conference 

• 46 nations, including four sponsors, were invited.

• Nations declared war on Germany and Japan.

• Subscribing to the 1942 United Nations Declaration.

• The British Foreign Affairs Minister issued invitations.

United Nations

• International Peace and Security

• Maintaining international peace and security.

• Developing friendly relations among nations.

• Achieving international cooperation in problem-solving.

• Harmonizing nations' actions towards common goals. 

Security Council: Permanent Members (right of Veto)

• USSR's Vetoed Complaints in the Middle East

• Complaint of armed invasion of Taiwan and aggression on Korea (1950) - USSR.

• Letter from the USA to Security Council President (1956) regarding Palestine question—USSR.

• India-Pakistan question (1957) - USSR.

• Kuwait's complaints about Iraq's threat to Kuwait's territorial integrity (1961)—USSR.

• Palestine Question (1963) - USSR.

• Middle East situation (1972) - USSR.

• Middle East situation (1984) - USSR.

• Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994)—Russian Federation.

• Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999)—China.

• Middle East, including the Palestinian question, 2003, USA.

• Middle East: Syria (2011); China and Russian Federation.

Red Scare

• 1947 House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) Impact on Hollywood

• Forced hundreds to reject left-wing political beliefs.

• This led to over 500 job losses.

• Blacklisted writers, directors, and actors unable to work for over a decade.

Chinese Civil War (Mao)

• WW2 China's Division and Conflict

• China was divided into nationalist, communist, and Japanese-occupied regions.

• Japan's defeat sparked a race between Nationalists and Communists for control over resources and population centers.

• Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek accused Communists of rebellion.

• Internal strife grew due to competition between the US and the Soviet Union.

• Communist-held territory increased from one-tenth of China in 1946 to one-third in 1948.

• Nationalists financed the war by printing more money, destroying the purchasing power of their currency.

• Strikes, student demonstrations, and labour unrest became commonplace.

• Communists established the People's Republic of China in 1949, forcing the Republic of China leadership to retreat to Taiwan.

Greek Civil War

• Greek Guerrilla War and German Occupation

• The German occupation was resisted by communist-controlled EAM-ELAS and EDES.

• Civil war broke out in Athens in December 1944.

• Communists were defeated, and King was restored in 1946.

• Communists reopened a full-scale guerrilla war.

• Hellenic Army of the Greek government (supported by the UK and US) and the Democratic Army of Greece (supported by Bulgaria, Albania, Yugoslavia, and the Soviet Union) from 1946 to 1949.

• War of Ideologies.

• Greece's Government Forces' Victory in 1946-48

• Despite initial hardships, they won due to increased American aid.

• Western-allied victory led to Greece's NATO membership in 1952.

• Defined ideological balance in the Aegean Sea during the Cold War.

Truman Doctrine 

• US Doctrine on Turkey's Response to Soviet Pressures

• Moscow claimed eastern Anatolia and demanded greater control over the Turkish Straits.

• The USA aimed to prevent a Communist insurgency in Greece.

• Domino Theory: If not intervened, the Soviet Union would control Greece and other regions.

• The USA provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey.

• USA aid to Turkey totaled around 3 billion USD between 1947 and 1960.

Marshall Plan 

• Marshall Plan Overview

• American initiative in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe.

• Aimed to counter post-WWII poverty, unemployment, and dislocation.

• Transferred over $13 billion in economic recovery programs to Western European economies.

NATO 

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• Intergovernmental military alliance between 28 European and 2 North American countries.

• Implements April 1949 North Atlantic Treaty.

European Coal and Steel Community 

• "Palace of Paris Treaty:

• Established in 1951 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.

• Created a common market for coal and steel.

• Provided freely set prices, free product movement, no customs duties, taxes, subsidies, or restrictive practices."

State of Israel 

• Ottoman Land Code of 1858 and Jewish National Fund's Role

• The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 allocated a budget to massive land purchases.

• 250,000 immigrants arrived between 1929 and 1939 due to Nazism in Germany.

• UN announced a plan to divide Palestine into Arab and Jewish states in 1947.

• UN Resolution 181 proposed partitioning Palestine into Jewish and Palestinian states, rejected by Palestinians and Arabs.

• The State of Israel was proclaimed in Tel Aviv on 14 May 1948, recognized by US President Trump.

• The British Mandate ends on 15 May 1948, bringing the declaration of the State of Israel into effect.

Korean War 

• Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and ruled until 1945.

• Post-war, the US and Soviet Union divided Korea into two zones of occupation.

• In 1948, the occupation zones became two sovereign states: Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north and Republic of Korea in the south.

• Both states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of Korea, with neither accepting the border as permanent.

•  The Korean War began in June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.

•  North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union, while South Korea was supported by the United Nations.

• The UN Security Council denounced North Korea's invasion and authorized the formation of the UN Command.

•  China and the Soviet Union made a deal, promising support for the Chinese military.

• China attacked the UN forces invading North Korea.

• The US and Soviet jets engaged, but never attacked each other.

• The Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, creating the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).

Oil: Iran-Mosaddiq-AIOC

• Middle Eastern Oil Conflict and Nationalization Struggle

• American oil companies controlled 42% of Middle Eastern oil by the mid-to-late 1940s.

• The Middle East became the primary oil source for Western Europe and Japan between the 1950s and 1970s.

• Oil was a conflict between the West and the region's countries, not between East and West.

• Mosaddiq in Iran sought to nationalize oil companies in 1951, leading to the formation of the National Front.

• AIOC, a state within a state, was a major concern, with foreign management and the majority of its stock owned by the British government.

• Iran's oil industry was nationalized in 1951, and Mosaddiq became Prime Minister.

• AIOC called for a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil, which the USA joined in 1952.

• Iran's economic crisis resulted from the loss of oil revenues.

• Mosaddiq's control over the army led to the rise of the leftist party TUDEH.

• A military coup overthrew Mosaddiq in 1953, and an oil dispute was settled, restoring Iranian oil's international market position.

•  Between 1953 and 1979, Iran had no political freedom, with the Shah controlling everything.

Nasser-Pan-Arabism 

• Nasser's Military Initiatives

• Believed in the expulsion of the British and the power dismantling of local collaborators.

• Led the Free Officers Movement post-Arab-Israeli War defeat.

• Executed a nearly bloodless military coup against King Farouk in 1952.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal

• Egypt's Military Coup and Revolution

• 1952 military coup in Egypt, replacing one regime with another.

• Colonel Nasser led the coup, a group of pragmatic nationalists and military bureaucrats.

• In 1953, Egypt declared a Republic, abolished monarchy, and banned political parties.

• Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, promising to use revenues for development projects.

• In October 1956, Israel attacked Sinai, with Britain and France supporting it.

• The USA and USSR condemned the attack, forcing withdrawal from Egypt. Egypt retained the Suez Canal.

Middle East and Cold War 

Eisenhower Doctrine 

• Policy Promises for Resistance to Communism

• Economic and military assistance to resist communism.

• Authorized US force deployment for Middle Eastern states.

• Protects independence from armed aggression from international communist nations.

Arab-Israeli Wars (1948-1956-1967-1973)

• Israel's Arab War 1948

• Attacked by Egyptians, Iraqis, Jordanians, Syrians, Lebanese, Saudi, and Yemeni troops.

• 8-month war.

• Israel won and annexed more territory.

• More Jews and Palestinian Arabs sought refuge.

• Camps established

• 1949 Armistice Divides West Bank and Gaza Strip

•  Israel separated from Palestine.

• Jordan ruled the east Bank and East Jerusalem from 1948 to 67.

•  Gaza Strip under Egyptian military.

• Israel took control of western Jerusalem.

• Six-Day War: Israel-Arab States Conflict

• In May 1967, the USSR and Syria falsely claimed Israel was preparing a military attack on Syria.

•  Nasser, a Pan-Arab leader, deployed troops in Sinai, blocking Israeli ships.

• On June 5, 1967, Israel launched Operation Focus, an aerial attack on Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq.

• Israeli forces stormed across the border into the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip.

• Jordan began shelling Israeli positions in Jerusalem, leading to a devastating counterattack.

• On June 7, Israeli troops captured the Old City of Jerusalem.

• On June 9, Israeli tanks and infantry advanced on the Golan Heights in Syria, successfully capturing it the next day.

PLO

• "PLO Formation and Goals"

• Formated at the Arab League Summit in 1964.

• Comprises various Palestinian political groups.

• Aims to regain Palestine from Israelis.

1973 Oil Crisis 

• OPEC Overview

• OPEC is a group of 12 major oil-exporting nations founded in 1960.

• Founding members include Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.

• Expansion included Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, and Ecuador.

• OPEC member states reduced oil production in response to Egypt and Syria's oil embargo.

• Saudi Arabia suspended oil shipments to the US, leading to increased oil prices.

• The embargo was lifted in May 1974, resuming oil supply.

• Western Europe and Japan began supporting the Arab cause.

• Inflation-adjusted oil prices increased from $25.97 per barrel in 1973 to $46.35 per barrel in 1974.

1979 Iran Revolution 

• Tehran's Revolution:

• 2 million people protested against unarmed killings.

• The monarchy was replaced with the Islamic Republic.

• The Constitution granted power to Ulama.

• Khomeini appealed to Iraqi Shia for overthrow.

• Saddam viewed Iran as a threat.

Iran-Iraq War

• Iraq's Political and Military Developments

• Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Gulf states supported Iraq.

• In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, leading to Iran's attack.

• Iraq's oil revenues were destroyed.

• Iraq borrowed money from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

• The USA provided military intelligence from 1984.

• Iraq used chemical weapons against Kurds in Halabja.

• Khomeini accepted a truce in 1988.

Detente (1962-1975)

Cuban Revolution 

• Cuba's Political Evolution

• The U.S. military administered Cuba until 1902 when it became a republic.

• Batista, a rising military star, served as president from 1940–44 and ran for a second term in 1952.

• Castro, a young lawyer and activist, ran for Congress before Batista seized power.

• Castro led a raid against army barracks in 1953, leading to his imprisonment.

• Castro's trial and imprisonment built his reputation as a revolutionary leader.

• Castro's Cuban Exile Movement

• Castro, released in 1955, headed to Mexico.

• Organized Cuban exiles into a movement.

• In November 1956, 82 men sailed from Mexico aboard Granma.

• Most were killed, and 20 escaped, including Fidel Castro and Ernesto "Che" Guevara.

• Cuban Revolution: Guerrilla Campaign and Suspended Constitutional Protections

•  Batista's guerrilla campaign against more armed forces.

• Suspended constitutional protections for Cubans, including freedom of speech and assembly.

• Called for a major military offensive against rebels in the Sierra Maestra mountains.

• Rebels swiftly turned back the offensive, forcing army withdrawal.

• International media's favourable press coverage led to the US withdrawal of support.

• Batista fled Cuba in January 1959, implementing a socialist regime and forming ties with the Soviet Union.

Bay of Pigs Invasion 

• 1961 Cuban Exiles Landing Operation

• Failed by Cuban exiles opposing Fidel Castro's revolution.

• Invasion lost strategic initiative.

• The international community discovered the invasion.

• U.S. President Kennedy withheld further air support.

Cuban Missile Crisis 

• US-Soviet Confrontation: An International Crisis

• American missile deployments in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet missile deployments in Cuba.

• The Soviets agreed to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter future invasions.

• Kennedy ordered a naval "quarantine" to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba.The 

• The US refused to deliver offensive weapons to Cuba and demanded the dismantling and return of weapons in Cuba.

• Negotiations highlighted the need for a clear, direct communication line between the two superpowers.

Vietnam War

• Vietnam's Historical and Political Evolution

• Vietnam was under French colonial rule since the 19th century.

• During WWII, Japanese forces invaded Vietnam, leading to the formation of the Viet Minh.

• After WWII, Japan withdrew its forces, leaving the French-educated Emperor in control.

• Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh forces took control of Hanoi and declared a Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).

• The French-backed Emperor established Vietnam in July 1949, with Saigon as its capital.

• Armed conflict between Northern and Southern armies continued until the northern Viet Minh's victory.

• The 1954 Treaty split Vietnam along the 17th Parallel.

• The U.S. assumed financial and military support for the South Vietnamese state.

• The Viet Cong, a South Vietnamese common front, initiated a guerrilla war.

• The Domino Theory posited that if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, many would follow.

• The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave Johnson broad war-making powers and increased troop levels.

• In 1966, large areas of South Vietnam were designated as "free-fire zones."

• 1968 Tet Offensive and Vietnamization

• North Vietnam launched the Tet Offensive, causing attacks on over 100 South Vietnamese cities.

• President Johnson halted the bombing in North Vietnam due to declining approval ratings.

• Vietnamization involved withdrawing U.S. troops, increasing aerial and artillery bombardment, and providing South Vietnamese training.

• My Lai massacre: U.S. soldiers killed over 400 civilians.

• Anti-war protests in the USA increased from 20,000 in 1969 to 25,000 in 1970.

• A joint U.S.-South Vietnamese operation invaded Cambodia in 1970, leading to the South Vietnamese invasion of Laos.

• Violation of international law sparked protests on college campuses.

• North Vietnam demanded a ceasefire, leading to the Paris Peace Accords of 1973.

• War continued until April 30, 1975, when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon.

• Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976.

Vietnam War Protests 

• 1967 US Troops in Vietnam

• Nearly 500,000 troops.

• 15,058 killed, 109,527 wounded.

• 100,000 protesters at Lincoln Memorial.

• 30,000 march on the Pentagon.

Rosa Parks 

• Rosa Parks' 1955 Montgomery Bus Arrest

• Parks, secretary of the NAACP, refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery bus.

• Montgomery passed a city ordinance in 1900 to segregate bus passengers by race.

• Over time, black riders were required to move when no white-only seats were available.

• The first four rows of seats were reserved for whites.

• "Colored" sections for black people were generally in the rear of the bus.

Martin Luther King Jr. 

• Montgomery Bus Boycott: Economic Impact and Protests

• Economic strain on public transit and downtown business owners.

• Martin Luther King Jr. was chosen as a protest leader.

• Aimed for equality and human rights for African Americans, economically disadvantaged, and victims of injustice.

• Travelled globally, giving lectures on nonviolent protest and civil rights.

• Advocated for justice everywhere, highlighting the inescapable network of mutuality.

• Painful experience revealed that freedom is not voluntarily given by oppressors but must be demanded by the oppressed.

Woodstock 

• 1960s Social Protest Movements in Upstate New York

• Opposition to the Vietnam War.

• Push for free love and personal autonomy.

• Claim for civil rights and equality.

• Woodstock is a symbol of Vietnam War divides.

• Young people gather for peace and music, fighting alongside their peers.

Latin America and Africa and the Cold War

Operation PBSuccess-Guatemala 

• American Administration's View of Guatemalan Government as Communist

• Operation PBS Success: Detailed lists of government members to be assassinated if a coup was planned.

• CIA established training camps in Nicaragua and Honduras.

• Arbenz secretly acquired weapons from Czechoslovakia in 1954, marking the first Soviet-era weapon shipment to the Americas.

• Psychological Warfare: The U.S. Information Agency (USIA) wrote articles and distributed leaflets on Guatemala.

• In 1954, Arbenz was removed from power, reforms nullified, and United Fruit regained expropriated lands.

School of the Americas

• U.S. Service Schools' Latin American Training

• 1946: Administrative tasks for training Latin Americans in U.S. service schools.

• 1961: Kennedy ordered "anti-communist" counterinsurgency training.

• Training offered included riot control, special warfare, jungle warfare, intelligence, civil affairs, and public information.

• Between 1970 and 1979, 63% of Latin American cadets attended the school.

Chile-Allende 

• 1970 Presidency Win: Popular Unity Coalition

• Nationalized large-scale industries like copper mining and banking.

• Managed healthcare, education, and free milk program in Chile.

Operation Condor 

• Condor's Political Repression and State Terrorism

• Implemented in November 1975 by right-wing dictatorships in South America.

• Victims included dissidents, leftists, union leaders, priests, nuns, students, teachers, intellectuals, and suspected guerrillas.

• Key members included governments in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, and later Brazil.

• Created a centralized database on guerrilla movements, left-wing parties, trade unionists, religious groups, liberal politicians, and enemies of authoritarian regimes.

• Identified and attacked regional political "enemies."

• Operated to eliminate persons in other countries in the Americas and Europe.

• Targets were surveilled, then snatched and spirited away to a secret prison.

• Terrorists were held and tortured, including beatings, waterboarding, mock executions, electrocution, rape, and more.

• Family members were sometimes kidnapped and tortured, or even stolen.

Economic and Cultural Dimensions of the Cold War 

Soviet Planned Economy 

• Planned Economy and Market Abolitionism

• A planned economy involves investment, production, and capital goods allocation based on economy-wide economic plans.

• Market abolitionism advocates for the complete elimination of the economic market from society.

• State ownership of production means, collective farming, and industrial manufacturing are key.

• Planning ministries define economic inputs, completion schedules, and wholesale and retail prices for every enterprise.

• Communism theory argues for collective ownership of capital, with minor exceptions.

• Soviet families struggled to afford necessities like refrigerators and winter clothes, costing an entire month's wages.

End of Cold War

Soviet-Afghan War

• Saur Revolution and Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan

• 1978 coup led by the Afghan Communist Party.

•  Initiated radical modernization and land reforms.

• Unpopular among traditional rural populations and established power structures.

• The general secretary of the Communist Party was assassinated.

• Soviet deployment of the 40th Army across the border.

• UN General Assembly protests Soviet intervention.

• Afghan insurgents received significant support from Pakistan, the US, and the UK.

• International Sanctions and Embargoes Against Soviet Union

• The international community imposed sanctions and embargoes.

• The mid-1980s saw increased fighting and high military and diplomatic costs.

• Gorbachev announced the withdrawal in 1987, lasting until 1989.

Mujahideen 

• Afghan Mujahideen's International Contributions

• Thousands of Muslim volunteers from various countries joined the resistance.

• The majority of international fighters were Arabs, later known as Afghan Arabs.

• Osama bin Laden was a prominent Arab financier and militant.

Perestroika 

• Soviet Reconstruction and Economic Reforms

• Restructuring of Soviet political and economic system to end the Era of Stagnation.

• Aimed to improve the efficiency of socialism by adopting liberal economics.

• 1987 Law on State Enterprise: State enterprises are free to determine output levels based on consumer demand.

• 1988 Law on Cooperatives: Allows collective ownership of businesses in services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors.

• Foreign economic reforms facilitated joint ventures with Soviet ministries, state enterprises, and cooperatives.

Glasnost 

• "Era of Glasnost" in Soviet Union

• Increased transparency and openness in government.

• Gorbachev's administration committed to public discussion of system problems and solutions.

• Greater contact between Soviet citizens and the Western world, loosening travel restrictions.

Fukuyama, end of History Thesis 

• 20th-Century Ideological Violence

• Liberalism clashed with absolutism, bolshevism, fascism, and updated Marxism.

•  Resulted in ideological violence, threatening nuclear war.

Huntington: Clash of Civilizations 

• New World Conflict Sources

• Conflict will not be primarily ideological or economic.

• Cultural divisions will dominate the human conflict.

• Civilizational conflict will be the latest phase in modern conflict evolution.

• Civilizations and Their Interactions

• Civilizations are characterized by history, language, culture, tradition, and religion.

• People from different civilizations have different views on God and man, individuals and groups, citizens and states, parents and children, husband and wife, and the importance of rights, responsibilities, liberty, authority, equality, and hierarchy.

• Interactions between different civilizations are increasing, intensifying civilization consciousness and awareness of differences and commonalities.

•  Economic modernization and social change are separating people from longstanding local identities and weakening the nation-state as a source of identity.

• Religion has moved in to fill this gap, often in the form of "fundamentalist" movements.

• The West is at a peak of power, but a return to roots phenomenon is occurring among non-Western civilizations.

• Cultural characteristics and differences are less mutable than political and economic ones.

• Economic regionalism is increasing, with differences in culture and religion creating differences over policy issues.

• Western efforts to promote democracy and liberalism, maintain military predominance, and advance economic interests engender countering responses from other civilizations.

• Western ideas of individualism, liberalism, constitutionalism, human rights, equality, liberty, the rule of law, democracy, free markets, and the separation of church and state often have little resonance in Islamic, Confucian, Japanese, Hindu, Buddhist, or Orthodox cultures.