UNIT 1 Ultimate APBIO study cards
Key Concept: Carbon is essential to life due to its ability to form stable bonds with many elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Valence Electrons: Carbon has 4 valence electrons, allowing it to form up to four covalent bonds.
Carbon Chains:
Carbon can form long chains (single, double, or triple bonds) that make up the backbone of organic molecules.
Hydrocarbons (molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen) are the simplest organic molecules.
The length, branching, and shape of carbon chains lead to molecular diversity.
Definition: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that are involved in chemical reactions.
They determine the properties and functions of molecules.
Examples: Hydroxyl (-OH), Carboxyl (-COOH), Amino (-NH2), Phosphate (-PO4).
Diagram of Common Functional Groups:
Amino Group(−NH2)\text{Amino Group} \quad (-NH_2)Amino Group(−NH2)Carboxyl Group(−COOH)\text{Carboxyl Group} \quad (-COOH)Carboxyl Group(−COOH)
Four Main Classes: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Lipids.
Monomers & Polymers: Macromolecules are made of smaller units called monomers, which join to form polymers.
Monosaccharides: Simple sugars like glucose (C6H12O6C_6H_{12}O_6C6H12O6) used for energy.
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides bonded, such as sucrose (glucose + fructose).
Polysaccharides:
Storage: Starch (plants), Glycogen (animals) – both polymers of glucose used to store energy.
Structural: Cellulose (plant cell walls) and chitin (exoskeleton of arthropods).
Diagram: Glucose (monosaccharide) structure.
Amino Acids: 20 types, each with a central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and unique R group (side chain). The properties of the side chain determine the amino acid's behavior (nonpolar, polar, or charged).
Protein Structure:
Primary: Sequence of amino acids.
Secondary: α-helix and β-pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary: 3D shape due to R group interactions.
Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains forming one functional protein.
Diagram: Structure of a generic amino acid.
Function: Store, transmit, and express genetic information.
Monomers: Nucleotides (composed of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base).
Types:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): Double helix structure; stores genetic information.
RNA (ribonucleic acid): Single strand; helps in protein synthesis.
Diagram: DNA double helix structure.
Types: Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids.
Fats: Made of glycerol and fatty acids, used for long-term energy storage.
Saturated fats have no double bonds (solid at room temp).
Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds (liquid at room temp).
Phospholipids: Make up cell membranes, having a hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head, forming bilayers.
Steroids: Lipids with four fused carbon rings (e.g., cholesterol, hormones).
Diagram: Structure of a phospholipid and its arrangement in the bilayer.
Dehydration Reaction: Joins monomers by removing water (H₂O).
Example: A+B→AB+H2OA + B \to AB + H_2OA+B→AB+H2O
Hydrolysis: Breaks down polymers by adding water.
Example: AB+H2O→A+BAB + H_2O \to A + BAB+H2O→A+B
Carbon’s versatility allows for the diversity of biological molecules.
Functional groups determine the chemical behavior of organic molecules.
Macromolecules are essential for life, providing structure, energy storage, and information transfer.
Proteins perform a variety of roles due to their complex structures.
Nucleic acids are the blueprint for life, coding for the synthesis of proteins.
Lipids form cell membranes and store energy efficiently.
Key Concept: Carbon is essential to life due to its ability to form stable bonds with many elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Valence Electrons: Carbon has 4 valence electrons, allowing it to form up to four covalent bonds.
Carbon Chains:
Carbon can form long chains (single, double, or triple bonds) that make up the backbone of organic molecules.
Hydrocarbons (molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen) are the simplest organic molecules.
The length, branching, and shape of carbon chains lead to molecular diversity.
Definition: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that are involved in chemical reactions.
They determine the properties and functions of molecules.
Examples: Hydroxyl (-OH), Carboxyl (-COOH), Amino (-NH2), Phosphate (-PO4).
Diagram of Common Functional Groups:
Amino Group(−NH2)\text{Amino Group} \quad (-NH_2)Amino Group(−NH2)Carboxyl Group(−COOH)\text{Carboxyl Group} \quad (-COOH)Carboxyl Group(−COOH)
Four Main Classes: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Lipids.
Monomers & Polymers: Macromolecules are made of smaller units called monomers, which join to form polymers.
Monosaccharides: Simple sugars like glucose (C6H12O6C_6H_{12}O_6C6H12O6) used for energy.
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides bonded, such as sucrose (glucose + fructose).
Polysaccharides:
Storage: Starch (plants), Glycogen (animals) – both polymers of glucose used to store energy.
Structural: Cellulose (plant cell walls) and chitin (exoskeleton of arthropods).
Diagram: Glucose (monosaccharide) structure.
Amino Acids: 20 types, each with a central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and unique R group (side chain). The properties of the side chain determine the amino acid's behavior (nonpolar, polar, or charged).
Protein Structure:
Primary: Sequence of amino acids.
Secondary: α-helix and β-pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary: 3D shape due to R group interactions.
Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains forming one functional protein.
Diagram: Structure of a generic amino acid.
Function: Store, transmit, and express genetic information.
Monomers: Nucleotides (composed of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base).
Types:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): Double helix structure; stores genetic information.
RNA (ribonucleic acid): Single strand; helps in protein synthesis.
Diagram: DNA double helix structure.
Types: Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids.
Fats: Made of glycerol and fatty acids, used for long-term energy storage.
Saturated fats have no double bonds (solid at room temp).
Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds (liquid at room temp).
Phospholipids: Make up cell membranes, having a hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head, forming bilayers.
Steroids: Lipids with four fused carbon rings (e.g., cholesterol, hormones).
Diagram: Structure of a phospholipid and its arrangement in the bilayer.
Dehydration Reaction: Joins monomers by removing water (H₂O).
Example: A+B→AB+H2OA + B \to AB + H_2OA+B→AB+H2O
Hydrolysis: Breaks down polymers by adding water.
Example: AB+H2O→A+BAB + H_2O \to A + BAB+H2O→A+B
Carbon’s versatility allows for the diversity of biological molecules.
Functional groups determine the chemical behavior of organic molecules.
Macromolecules are essential for life, providing structure, energy storage, and information transfer.
Proteins perform a variety of roles due to their complex structures.
Nucleic acids are the blueprint for life, coding for the synthesis of proteins.
Lipids form cell membranes and store energy efficiently.
