World History Review

Developments in Dar al-Islam

• Spread of Islam: Expanded through military conquests, trade, and missionary work.
• Golden Age of Islam: Significant advancements in science, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy in centers like Baghdad, Córdoba, and Cairo.
• Mamluk Sultanate: Islamic slave soldiers who took control in Egypt, which maintained trade routes and expanded militarily.
• Islamic Political Systems: The Caliphate system, especially during the Abbasid Caliphate, was central to governance.

Developments in Southeast and South Asia

• Sultanates and Kingdoms: Muslim and Hindu kingdoms and empires, including the Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagara Empire, had significant influence.
• Trade Networks: Southeast Asia, particularly the Strait of Malacca, served as a crucial trade hub connecting India, China, and the Middle East.
• Religious Diversity: Islam spread in Southeast Asia (especially Indonesia), contrasting with the continued presence of Hinduism and Buddhism in other regions.

State Building in Africa

• Mali Empire: Major West African empire known for wealth, especially in gold, and Mansa Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Swahili Coast: Thriving city-states due to Indian Ocean trade, blending African, Arab, and Persian cultures.
• Ethiopia: Maintained Christianity and developed a unique culture connected to the Axumite civilization.
• Kingdom of Kongo: Centralized kingdom with a complex political structure, known for trading with Portugal.

Developments in Europe

• Feudalism: A political and economic system where lords owned land and vassals provided military service.
• The Black Death: A pandemic that significantly reduced the population, leading to labor shortages and socioeconomic changes.
• Renaissance and Humanism: Revival of classical knowledge that led to developments in art, literature, and science.
• Religious Reformation: Martin Luther’s challenges to the Catholic Church led to the Protestant Reformation, which reshaped religious and political systems.

Comparison in the Period

• Political and Social Systems: Diverse political systems (Islamic caliphates, European feudalism, African empires) were shaped by environments and resources.
• Cultural Diffusion: The spread of Islam, Christianity, and other belief systems significantly influenced societies.

Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

• Gold, Salt, and Slaves: Exchange of gold from West Africa for salt from the Sahara, along with the movement of slaves.
• Islamic Influence: Integral in spreading Islam across North and West Africa.

Comparison of Economic Exchange

• Silk Roads vs. Indian Ocean Trade: Both were vital for trade; Silk Roads focused on land routes, while Indian Ocean trade thrived through maritime routes.
• Transatlantic Trade: Emerged after the Age of Exploration involving the exchange of enslaved people, goods, and resources.

Empires: Administration

• Centralized vs. Decentralized: Some empires (e.g., Byzantine) were highly centralized, while others (e.g., Holy Roman Empire) were decentralized.
• Bureaucracies: Large empires (Ottoman, Ming, Mughal) used elaborate bureaucracies to manage territories.

Comparison of Land-Based Empires

• Ottoman Empire: Multi-ethnic empire controlling parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
• Mughal Empire: Major power in South Asia, known for military and cultural achievements.
• China (Ming Dynasty): Centralized bureaucracy focused on agrarian economy and technological advancements.

Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed

• Spanish and Portuguese Empires: Established maritime empires in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
• Dutch and British Empires: Developed naval technology, establishing colonies and trade routes globally.

Indigenous Responses to State Expansion

• Resistance: Indigenous groups resisted state expansion (e.g., Native American tribes).
• Adaptation: Some indigenous groups adapted to new political and economic systems introduced by expanding empires.

Global Economic Development

• Global Trade Networks: Interconnectedness grew through trade routes like the Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, and Transatlantic Trade.
• Mercantilism: European powers maximized wealth through controlled trade and colonization.

Mass Atrocities After 1900

• World War I and II: Caused significant loss of life, displacement, and destruction.
• Genocides: Events like the Holocaust, Rwandan Genocide, and Armenian Genocide.

Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization

• Post-WWII World: The U.S. and USSR emerged as superpowers.
• Decolonization: Former colonies sought independence, influenced by capitalism vs. communism.

Decolonization After 1900

• India: Independence from Britain in 1947 through non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Africa: Many nations gained independence through peaceful and violent struggles.
• Middle East: Former Ottoman territories and European colonies gained independence.

Causation in the Age of the Cold War and Decolonization

• Ideological Conflict: The Cold War was driven by ideological differences between communism (USSR) and capitalism (USA), leading to proxy wars and global division.
• Decolonization: The desire for self-determination led to widespread movements, accelerated by the weakening of colonial powers and international pressure for decolonization.