Islamic review

Overview of Islam through 1450

1. Islam: A Monotheistic Religion

   • Fastest growing major religion, rooted in belief in one God, Allah.

   • Taught by several prophets, with Muhammad (570-632 ext{ CE}) as the last.

   • Originated on the Arabian Peninsula.

2. Rapid Expansion

   • Expanded rapidly in the century after Muhammad's life.

   • Reached from Persia to Spain.

3. Modern Predominance

   • Predominant in Arab countries of the Middle East and North Africa.

   • Also in non-Arab countries like Iran, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Niger.

Pre-Islamic Bedouin Culture

1. Early Bedouin Society (6th Century)

   • Well-established in the Arabian Peninsula.

   • Predominantly nomadic, tribal, and polytheistic.

2. Social Structure

   • Led by a sheikh, chosen by a tribal council.

   • Strong tribal allegiance, extending beyond individual clans.

   • Polygyny practiced, partly for welfare of widows.

3. Religious Practices

   • Worshipped Allah as a supreme deity, despite polytheism.

   • Each tribe had a sacred stone; the most revered was a large black stone in Mecca.

   • No separate priestly class; the tribe was the religious community.

4. Values and Economy

   • Emphasized honesty and generosity.

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   • Water travel (Red Sea, Arabian Sea) increased due to Byzantine-Sassanid conflicts, impacting Bedouin caravans.

5. Continuity into Islam

   • Many Bedouin features, except polytheism, provided continuity for emerging Islam.

Muhammad and Islam

1. Muhammad's Preaching

   • Began preaching in the Arabian Peninsula.

   • Attracted many converts.

2. Core Islamic Principles

   • Centered on salvation and hope through submission to Allah.

   • The Quran serves as a sacred guide and source of laws.

   • Stresses monotheism and a moral code for personal and social life.

Islam in Practice: The Five Pillars

1. Core Obligations (Five Pillars)

   • 1. Belief in the oneness of God (Allah) and Muhammad as His prophet.

   • 2. Prayer five times daily.

   • 3. Almsgiving to the poor.

   • 4. Fasting during the month of Ramadan.

   • 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) at least once in a lifetime if able.

2. Jihad

   • Principal concept meaning struggle to strive in the way of Allah.

   • Interpreted as inner moral struggle or a call to war under certain conditions.

3. Shariah (Islamic Code of Law)

   • Developed by scholars after Muhammad.

   • Outlines daily conduct, morality, and rules.

   • Examples: bans on gambling, pork, and alcohol; polygyny limited to four wives; Muslims should not enslave Muslims; non-Muslims received protections.

   • Influences modern laws in countries like Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan.

The First Four Caliphs and Umayyads

1. Leadership Succession Post-Muhammad (632 CE)

   • Leadership of the Islamic community was contested.

   • Abu Bakr selected as caliph (leader), guided by the Quran.

   • Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, eventually became caliph.

2. Sunni-Shia Division

   • Succession dispute led to major divisions.

   • Sunni Muslims: accept Abu Bakr and the first four caliphs as Rightly Guided.

   • Shia Muslims: regard Ali as the first true caliph.

   • Today, 85-90% are Sunni; Shia are strongest in Iran and Iraq.

3. Dar al-Islam

   • Refers to the community and culture of Islamic regions, including both Sunni and Shia.

4. Caliphal Expansion

   • Caliphs spread Islam, Arabic, and crops (cotton, sugar, citrus).

   • Abu Bakr led raids against Byzantine and Sassanid empires.

   • Political conquest often led to conversion, though forced conversion was discouraged.

   • Conversions reduced tax collections (Muslims were exempt from certain taxes).

The Spread of Islam, 622-750

1. Ali's Rule and the Umayyads

   • Fourth caliph Ali ruled from 656 to 661.

   • Merchant network from Mecca founded the Umayyad Dynasty, moving capital to Damascus.

2. Umayyad Empire

   • Governed a vast empire for about 90 years.

   • Expanded from Iberia (Gibraltar) to India.

   • Controlled the largest territory since the Roman Empire.

   • Followers of Ali (Shia) resisted the Umayyads, adding political dimensions to their beliefs.

Umayyads and Abbasids

1. Umayyad Decline

   • Weakened by corruption and mismanagement by the end of the 9th year after consolidation.

2. Abbasid Rise

   • In 750, Damascus fell to the Abbasids.

   • Established Baghdad as the new capital.

   • Baghdad's strategic location for trans-Eurasian trade made it a commercial and cultural powerhouse.

   • The Abbasid Caliphate became highly powerful and innovative.

Baghdad and the Abbasid Golden Age

1. Center of Learning and Culture

   • Baghdad became a prominent intellectual hub.

   • Paper-making technology from China increased book availability.

   • Scientists and scholars expanded libraries and cataloged thousands of texts.

   • Marked a Golden Age of learning and intellectual expansion.

The Influence of Persia

1. Islam in Persia

   • Reached Persia in 651. Arabic became the official language.

   • Persians faced initial discrimination as non-Arab believers.

   • In the 9th century, Persian Muslims challenged Arab privileged status, advocating for Islamic equality.

2. Persian Contributions to the Golden Age

   • Scholars, scientists, and poets enriched Islamic culture.

   • Avicenna (980-1037): Advanced medicine, astronomy, geography, logic.

   • Rumi (1207-1273): Persian poet, theologian, jurist; influenced Persian culture and Sufism.

3. Sufism

   • Emergence: Developed during Islam's spread.

   • Emphasis: Inner devotion and mystical experiences, contrasting with purely scholarly study of the Quran.

Problems for the Abbasids

1. Internal Challenges

   • Tax collection difficulties and administering distant provinces.

   • Attempts to standardize taxes in cash led to large bureaucracy.

   • Empire grew hierarchical with viziers; rulers faced assassination risks.

2. External Pressures and Invasions

   • Four invading groups from the west and north:

     • Mamluks (from Egypt): Turkic military slave group, controlled North Africa.

     • Seljuk Turks (Central Asia): Seized parts of the Middle East, reduced Abbasid caliph to a religious authority, threatened Byzantine Empire.

     • Crusaders (from Europe): Christian forces aimed to regain access to holy sites.

     • Mongols (Central Asia): Conquered remaining Abbasid lands in 1258, pushed Seljuk Turks out of Baghdad; halted in Egypt by Mamluks.

3. Economic Decline

   • Trade routes shifted away from Baghdad, impacting the southern Silk Road trade.

   • Decline in population and canal maintenance led to agricultural shortfalls.

Invasions and Trade Shifts

1. Major External Pressures (Abbasid Era)

   • Mamluks, Seljuk Turks, Crusaders, and Mongols.

2. Evolving Trade Patterns

   • Silk Road economy evolved, leading to Baghdad losing its central role.

3. Baghdad's Reduced Influence

   • Decline of canal systems and urban population contributed to its diminished standing.

Islamic Rule in Spain (Al-Andalus)

1. Conquest and Establishment (711 CE)

   • Muslim forces defeated Byzantine armies in North Africa and invaded Spain.

   • Cordoba designated as their capital.

2. Expansion and Limitation

   • Expanded into France but halted at the Battle of Tours in 732.

   • Limited western European expansion of Islamic forces.

3. Seven Centuries of Rule

   • Muslims ruled much of Spain, fostering coexistence with Christians and Jews.

4. Prosperity and Trade

   • Thriving trade, introduction of Chinese and Southeast Asian goods.

   • Dhows used for extensive trade.

5. Cultural and Intellectual Hub

   • Islamic architecture left a lasting mark (e.g., the Alhambra near Granada, 13th century).

   • Cordoba became a center of learning with the largest library of its time.

   • Notable scholars:

     • Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 12th century): Wrote on law, secular philosophy, natural sciences.

     • Maimonides: Prominent Jewish scholar.

   • Learning centers also flourished in Cairo and Bukhara.

   • Islamic emphasis on knowledge underscored by Muhammad's saying: Go in quest of knowledge even unto China.

   • Omar Khayyam: Persian poet and mathematician, wrote The Rubaiyat.

Centers of Learning in the Islamic World

1. House of Wisdom, Baghdad (c. 762)

   • Contributed to mathematics and algebra; Al-Khwarizmi established algebra.

2. University of Al Karaouine, Fez, Morocco (859)

   • One of the earliest universities offering degrees.

3. Library of al-Hakam II, Cordoba, Spain (c. 961)

   • Housed hundreds of thousands of volumes.

4. Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt (972)

   • Provided undergraduate and postgraduate education.

5. Al-Nizamiyya University, Baghdad (1065)

   • Provided free education.

Social Classes in the Islamic World

1. Pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula

   • Many were farmers and sailors; trade and caravan networks connected communities.

   • Kinship remained foundational; strong mutual loyalties in clans.

2. Islamic Society

   • Trade and wealth in Mecca and Medina fostered a merchant elite.

   • Mosques and Shariah provided social and cultural cohesion.

3. Discrimination and Land Ownership

   • Non-Arab rule by caliphs sometimes led to discrimination against non-Arabs, but it faded in the ninth century.

   • Caliphs did not own conquered land, allowing countryside life to largely persist.

4. Slavery

   • Slavery existed, but Muslims could not enslave other Muslims.

   • Non-Muslims (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians) could be enslaved.

   • Slaves often imported from Africa, Kievan Rus, Central Asia.

   • Many converted to Islam and were often freed; their children considered free.

   • Slave women could serve as concubines, had more independence than legal wives in some spheres.

5. Women's Rights and Status

   • Free women had notable rights, varying by region and era.

   • Practices like hijab developed as cultural and religious norms.

   • Muhammad's policies:

     • Paying dowries to wives (not fathers).

     • Forbidding infanticide of girl children.

     • His first wife, Khadijah (educated businesswoman), set a precedent.

   • Overall, Islamic women could:

     • Inherit property.

     • Remarry after widowhood.

     • Receive a settlement in divorce.

     • Initiate divorce under some conditions.

     • Practice birth control.

     • Testimony in court under Shariah was generally valued at half that of a man.

6. Sufism's Social Impact

   • Emerged as a mystical form of Islam with rituals and ecstatic practices.

   • Emphasized introspection and unity with God, contrasting with doctrinal scholarship.

   • Influential in India and Persia.

7. Emphasis on Learning

   • The saying Go in quest of knowledge even unto China highlighted Islamic culture's strong value on education.

The Legacy in Spain and Cultural Exchanges

1. Documentation of Islamic Era in Spain

   • Early 1800s: Western writers like Washington Irving documented it (e.g., Tales of the Alhambra, 1832).

2. Historical Reassessment in 20th Century Spain

   • Spanish nationalism prompted reassessments of Muslim legacy.

     • Claudio Sánchez-Albomoz: Pre-Islamic and Islamic periods formed a distinct Spanish character.

     • Americo Castro: Islam profoundly impacted Spanish identity.

3. Cultural Tolerance and Exchange

   • Maria Rosa Menocal (Ornament of the World): Highlighted cultural exchange across confessional lines among Muslims, Jews, and Christians in Medieval Spain.

Key Terms by Theme (Condensed Reference)

1. STATE-BUILDING

   • Abbasid Baghdad, viziers, Seljuk Turks, sultan, Mamluks, Cordoba, Battle of Tours

2. SOCIAL STRUCTURE

   • Muhammad, Bedouins, polygyny, Allah, Mecca, Quran (Koran), Medina, Hegira, Kaaba, People of the Book, Five Pillars, jihad, Ramadan, shariah, Abu Bakr, caliph, AM, Sunnis, Shias, Dar al-Islam, Umayyad Dynasty, Damascus, imam, dhows, Averroes, Alhambra, Omar Khayyam

3. CULTURE

   • Bedouins, Allah, Mecca, Quran, Medina, Hegira, Kaaba, Sufis, hijab, dowries, infanticide, Maimonides, Avicenna, Rumi

4. RELIGION-LAW

   • shariah, jihad, Ramadan, Five Pillars

5. PEOPLE

   • Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, Ali, Sunni, Shia, Imam, Mamluks, Seljuk Turks, Crusaders, Mongols, Averroes, Avicenna, Omar Khayyam

Historical Perspectives: What Is Islam's Legacy in Spain?

1. Lasting Legacy

   • Left an architectural and intellectual legacy, including the Alhambra and Cordoba's libraries and universities.

2. Cultural Exchange and Tolerance

   • Exchange among Muslims, Christians, and Jews contributed to a shared intellectual heritage and tolerance (though varied over time).

3. Test Prep

   • Outline a comparative analysis of the division in Islam (Sunni vs Shia