The Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution:

Heliocentrism:

• Initiated Scientific Rev.

• Idea that the sun is the center of the universe not the earth

• Introduced by Nicolas Copernicus on his observation of the movements of the sky

• Cosmology: Model of the universe

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Enlightenment philosopher

• Lived in 18th Century 1712-1778

• Famous book of the social contract

• Political power is an agreement from the ruler to the ruled.

• Man was born innocent, but society is what corrupts people.

• Civilization was based on the rich and the poor, poor were tricked into injustice

• Society needed to be based on the will of the people

• Influential for the American revolution and education LEQ

Popular Sovereignty

• People are the ultimate power in society, analogous to Will of the people

• Related to nationalism

• People should be in power of their political destiny

Divine Right of Kings

• European states and kings justification of their rule

• St Augustine, City of God, two cities, city of man and city of god

• City of man is political authority

• City of God is Christian believers

• City of Man’s authority to protect the Christian church

• Kings rule should be absolute, sanctioned by god, religious justification

• Challenging of this starts the Enlightenment, based on consent of governed. Secular theories

Deism

• Enlightenment critique of Christianity

• Thoughts on the natural world

• Creating of new religious orientation, Deism

• Philosophers rejected the stories of miracles and how God has intervened in the world

• Maintained belief that God created everything based on a set of laws, then was hands off letting the world run

• Metaphor of a clockmaker, letting the clock run

• Many philosophers and founding fathers were deist.

Ptolemaic Universe

• original cosmology of Claudius Ptolemy.

• Explanation of the sky, Geocentric cosmology, earth centered

• Noticed that stars would go back and forth

• Reconciled this by idea of precession, stars are circling the earth and also rotating around another axis point.

Philosophes

• Part of enlightenment

• People with education, doctors, educators, engineers, scientists.

• Adopted enlightenment ideals, read philosophers

• Their writings popularized the idea of progress.

• Notion that through the scientific revolution, if people learned about the world, they could learn how the world works, and improve themselves

• Bad actions were based on bad ideas.

• Improving society by informing about the world

• Belief in progress

• harshest critics of the church

• Most famous was Voltaire

Thomas Hobbes

• Initiator of the enlightenment

• 1588-1679

• Published the Leviathan

• Explains nature of political power, based upon the English civil war

• Essential nature of man is bad, self interested, greedy, do worst to other man to get what they need

• Political power is a contract between the ruler and the ruled

• If the ruler can provide stability and peace, they deserve the loyalty of their subjects

• Loyalty should be absolute, not challenged

• First instance of the social contract

John Locke

• Successor to Hobbes

• Social contract theory

• lived through the glorious revolution, change of dynasties 1688

• bloodless revolution

• Opposite conclusion of Hobbes, man is good, wants to live with people cooperately

• Inalienable rights, rights when they are born

• Right to life, liberty, property.

• Social contract that the leader ruled with loyalty, if they retained the inalienable rights

• If they don’t, the people have the right to overthrow them and place a new leader.

• Justification for revoltuion

Galileo Galilei

• Italian scientist 1564-1642

• Greatest scientist of his age

• Created telescope to observe the stars

• Helped confirm Copernicus theory of heliocentrism.

• Astronomical discoveries, Jupiter’s moons, sunspots, craters.

• Enhancement of man’s observation through tech innovations.

• Published in the starry messenger in 1610, proved Copernicus theory

• Catholic church rejects his argument, he is put under house arrest.

• Pioneers of the scientific method, evidence and testing.

The Atlantic Revolutions

Maximillian Robespierre

• Leader of French revolution 1758-1794

• Killed by guillotine

• Lawyer, influenced by enlightenment, advocated for execution's of Louie 16th

• Used terror to preserve the revolution and his power.

• Promoted equality and overthrow of aristocrats

• Abolitionist

• Universal suffrage

Rights of Man

• List of rights for all French

Simon Bolivar

• Leader of Latin American Revolutions 1783-1830

• Venezuelan Creole

• Influenced by enlightenment philosophy, taken back to South America, influenced people to rebel

• Ideal to throw off European rule and to create a nation-state of Latin American Countries

• Grand Colombia, nation-state he made

• Geographically too spread out, too diverse, fell apart after his death

• Bolivia named after him

Haitian Revolution

• Took place in Haiti in 1791

• Richest New World colony, 8000 plantations with Black African slave labor

• Not many Europeans

• Slave conditions were brutal.

• Set conditions of French Rev.

• Starts with Slave revolt, quickly gets out of control

• Civil War between slaves and Europeans.

• Successful, French unsuccessful in trying to stop it

• First successful slave revolt, first free state

• Led by Toussaint L’Ouverture

• Achieves independence of a Black African dominated society

• Breaks up plantation and given to slaves

• Remains in economic strain

• Payed indignity to France for their freedom, crippling to the economy.

• Export of Cash Crops. Economically dependent on Europe

7 Years War

• Great Britain and France.

• Global conflict, not generally fought in Europe

• North America, India and the Oceans

• Great Britain wins, kicks France out of India, monopolizes European trade.

• Take over trade in India, BEIC.

• NA, France loses territory, Indian allies also lose territory so British colonists can expand westward

• Bankrupts French Gov.

• Sets up the French Rev. Famine, poverty, social unrest

• British set up taxes for NA colonists, sets up the American Revolution.

The Rights of Man

• Most important doc. from French Rev.

• Articulates fundamental rights of all citizens under the revolution

• Human equality

• Analogous to the Bill of Rights

Consequences of Revolution:

Baptist War

• Abolitionist Movement in Great Britain

• takes place in Jamaica

• 1831, huge slave uprising, slaves and maroon colonies

• Came to accommodation and truce.

• Brought instability to Jamaica, led to gov. believing slavery is not worth it

• Led to slavery abolitionist act.

Elizabeth Cady-Stanton

• Leader of 19th century feminism 1815-1902

• Organized the gathering of feminists in New York

• Formulated the Declaration of the Rights of sentiments, modeling of Dec of Independence.

• Pushed for female suffrage, becomes focus of the feminist movement

• Pays off, New Zealand first to recognize female suffrage, 1920 in USA

Maternal Feminism

• Argues that women deserve suffrage since they take care of children

• They should have a say in political affairs.

Acts of British Parliament + Abolitionist

• Acts that led to the abolitionist movement

• Quakers, believed slavery is evil

• Write about conditions of the slave trade

• builds support for the movement.

• First political attempts to abolish slavery

• British parliament passes slave trade act, penalizes with fines

• 1811, passes felony slave trade act, can go to jail.

Napoleon

• Proclaimed French Emperor

• Soldier of French army

• He was an effective commander, becomes top general

• Takes over French gov.

• Puts end to democracy

• Promoted equality of all Frenchmen

• Napoleonic Code, did away with legal privilege.

• Laws that were applied to you were equal among everyone.

• Champions a rational gov. Bureaucracy of merit.

• Based on education, not family name or connections

• Promoted Nationalism. Defying unit. Shared language culture and history.

• Soldiers spread Nationalism in other parts of the world.

• Direct challenge to Monarchy, they rule by divine right of kings. Nationalism says that political power is determined by the nation of the people. Shared culture

• Defeated by British, died in 1821

Industrial Revolutions

Enclosure Movement

• Pre-condition of Indus Rev.

• Reorganization of agricultural and rural land.

• Aristocrat owned undeveloped land, where peasants and commoners used the resources to sustain themselves.

• Aristocrats wanted to gain money from them.

• They fenced off the land, set off huge migration of peasants to cities

• Made a huge labor force for the Industrial rev.

Adam Smith

• Scottish economist

• 1723-1790

• Justifier of Industrial Capitalism

• Wealth of Nations of 1776.

• Argued for Laissez Faire economics that argues that Government should never intervene with economic activity

• Makes it inefficient and less profitable

• Should be guided by supply and demand, and the market

• Would be most efficient.

• Critiquing mercantilism, encouraging exports

• Allowed industrial capitalist to do whatever they wanted, bad conditions, employ children

• Capitalist Bible

Bessemer Process

• Initiates second Indus rev.

• Process in how steel is created

• If you inject oxygen when smelting iron, it creates a stronger iron

• Steel replaces iron. Used for buildings and transport

• Primary material of Second indus rev.

5 stages of History

• Karl Marx theory of historical development, and how it will lead to a better future Communist Manifesto

• Based on his observations of European history

• Notion of historical materialism. The way people acquire goods, determines organization.

• Primitive communism: Hunter and Gatherer societies. Development of settled Agriculture brought end to this stage. Private property.

• Slave Holding society: Need labor force to work lands. Constant warfare ends the era.

• Feudal Stage: Weak kings, landowning aristocracy controls land, and tries to make manors, self-sufficient places.

• Provides protection for peasantry. Serfdom, controlled by lord. Rise of commerce and trade undermines self-sufficiency. Commercial class arises outside feudalism.

• Capitalism: Stage that Marx lived in. Profit motive reigns supreme. Do anything to make a profit, factory owners pay as little as possible for workers. Exploitation of proletariat. Oppressions of working class would rise up and overthrow Industrial capitalists.

• Communist Stage: Workers will own things in society, determine how things are allocated. Last stage of history. No contradiction.

• Gave working class people hope.

Division of Labor

• Josiah Wedgewood

• Pottery making had lots of steps

• Realized that one person could do one step, speeding up the process, making all the things uniform.

• Higher quality, safer transport, and could pack more.

• Increased profits

• Applied to production of any goods.

Thomas Malthus

• Argued that population size is limited by resources

• Lack of adequate food, famine, people would die off

• Influenced Darwin

• Working conditions were bad, because proletariat had too many babies

• Overproduced

• Too many workers, labor devalued

• Should have fewer children, marry later, more morally restrained

• Less population, labor would be valued more

• Blames victim for their own suffering

Electricity

• Important power source of 2nd Indus. Rev.

• Used to run generators, improvement over coal fired engines.

• Steady power source. Improve work conditions by providing light, improved gas lights.

• Electrification of factories and cities.

Darwinism

White Man’s Burden

• Social Darwinism

• Use of Darwinist ideas to explain inequality

• Justifies imperialism and colonialism

• Reason for conquering is since they have a responsibility to introduce western ideas to people, so they evolve.

• Moral obligation to improve the people they colonize

The Decent of Man

• Charles Darwin book 1871

• Attempt to apply theories of bio. to human evolution and culture.

• LDCs are an expression of human evolution. Lesser evolved.

Origin of Species

• 1859, Darwin book of his observations in the Galapagos

• Theorizes that differences of species are determined by environmental pressures over time

• Struggle for existence is between same species

• Those that survive are those that are adapted to survive, due to some biological change

• They will survive and pass on their adaptations to their offspring.

• Important work

European Imperialism

Emperor Kangxi

• 3rd Emperor of the Qing dynasty. 1654-1722

• Stabilized Qing China

• Revitalized Exam system, Confucian teachings and culture

• Helps peasants, giving land, reducing taxes

• Improved road systems

• Open to western ideas and tech

• Good terms with Jesuits, let them be missionaries

• Adopted western technology

• Greatest Qing empire

Indian National Congress

• Part of British rule in India

• British gov. allowed BEIC to control India

• Sepoy rebellion made India a crown colony, of the British gov.

• Implemented modernization program, created universal education, railroads

• United India, nationalist conscience.

• Thought that India should be free from British rule

• Approach to independence was non-confrontational and gradual.

• Should modernize, then British would give them liberty

• Congress dominated by Hindus, advocated for their beliefs

• Muslims resented this.

• Created Muslim league to cater towards Muslims.

• Organization working towards India’s independence

BEIC Control over India

• Start to take control after 7 years war

• Own private army

• Become involved in state politics in Mughal Empire

• Fragmented Mughal Empire

• Needed Indian people to provide for BEIC, greatly enriching them, detrimental to India’s economy.

• BEIC takes over different parts of India

• Only about 1000 people in BEIC, to rule India, they relied on local leaders, incorporating them into their interests

• Mughal emperor stays on the throne. Legitimizes the authority of local leaders.

• Leads to Sepoy Rebellion

• Insensitive towards Indian culture, superiority. End up offending Indians

• Employed Indian soldiers to fight for BEIC called sepoys

• Rifle introduced, greased with pork and beef fat. Sacrilegious to Hindus and Muslims

• Led to the Sepoy revolt.

• Convinced British gov. that the BEIC could not control India, so they take over the Mughal empire. British Crown, called British Raj.

Congo Free State

• Relates to the Scramble for Africa

• Exploitation of Europeans

• Personal possession of Belgian king.

• Berlin Conference of 1884 led by Otto Van Bismark

• Drew lines to divide up Africa.

• Belgian king argued that he should take control of the congo.

• Has valuable resources, rubber, diamonds.

• Belgians exploit the area, basically enslave natives

• Chopped off hands and feet as punishment.

• 50% of population died.

• Showed how the White Man’s burden was hypocritical

Boer War:

• South Africa. Zulu population and small British and Dutch population called Afrikkaners.

• in the 1890s gold is discovered in Dutch Land, British want to take over.

• Dutch Boers are outgunned and outnumbered by British however they resist them.

• British win the war, but they create a new state with the Dutch called the Union of South Africa with Dutch Afrikaners, British, and Black Africans.

• Laws that legally separate them races. Called Apartheid Laws.

• Created Union of South Africa and Apartheid

Africanization of Christianity

• Christian Missionaries came to Africa

• Sub-Sahara Christianized

• Frequent African traditions, beliefs, and rituals

• Create churched independent of European structure

• Blend Christianity with African Values

• similar to Islam in West Africa.