19th Century Ap Euro

1. Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was a diplomatic meeting after Napoleon's defeat, aiming to restore stability and order in Europe. Major participants included:

• Austria: Prince Metternich

• Britain: Lord Castlereagh

• Prussia: King Frederick William III

• Russia: Tsar Alexander I

• France: Talleyrand Their goals were to re-establish the old order, prevent any one power from dominating, and create a balance of power to maintain peace.

2. Balance of Power

The Balance of Power refers to the idea that no single nation should become too powerful, as it might threaten peace. The Congress of Vienna practiced this by redistributing territories and strengthening smaller countries to prevent the dominance of any single European state, like France.

3. Major Political Philosophies of the 19th Century

• Conservatism: Advocated for tradition, stability, and monarchies (e.g., Metternich).

• Liberalism: Emphasized individual rights, constitutional government, and democracy (e.g., John Stuart Mill).

• Socialism: Sought to address social inequalities, advocating for collective ownership and state intervention in the economy (e.g., Karl Marx).

4. Thomas Malthus

Thomas Malthus wrote the Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), arguing that population grows exponentially while food grows linearly, leading to overpopulation and famine. His work was significant in influencing later economic and social theories, particularly around population control.

5. Nationalism

Nationalism is the belief in the importance of a shared identity, culture, and history within a nation. It became significant in the 19th century as people sought independence or unity for their nations, often leading to revolutions or unification movements.

6. Qualities of Romanticism

Romanticism (late 18th–mid-19th century) emphasized emotion, individualism, nature, and the sublime. It rejected the rationalism of the Enlightenment and focused on intuition, imagination, and the beauty of the natural world.

7. Romanticism and Nationalism

Romanticism and nationalism were interconnected; romanticism often idealized national history, culture, and folklore, fueling nationalistic movements and the desire for unified nation-states.

8. Political Leadership of France in the 19th Century

France's political leadership evolved through several stages:

• Napoleon Bonaparte (Emperor, 1804-1814)

• Restoration of the monarchy (1814-1830 under Louis XVIII and Charles X)

• July Revolution (1830) led to the July Monarchy under Louis-Philippe.

• Second Republic (1848-1852) following revolution.

• Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852-1870).

9. Revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of republican revolts against monarchies across Europe, driven by demands for political reform, social justice, and national independence. Although most were crushed, they marked a significant turning point in European political history.

10. Italian Unification

Italian unification (the Risorgimento) was achieved through a combination of diplomacy and military action, largely orchestrated by figures like Cavour (Piedmont) and Garibaldi (Southern Italy), with support from France.

11. German Unification

German unification was largely driven by Otto von Bismarck, who used a policy of realpolitik, war (e.g., wars against Denmark, Austria, and France), and diplomacy to unite the various German states under Prussian leadership, culminating in the formation of the German Empire in 1871.

12. Realpolitik

Realpolitik is a political approach based on pragmatism and the pursuit of national interests, rather than ideological principles. Bismarck famously used realpolitik to achieve German unification and strengthen Prussia's position in Europe.

13. Effect of Unification on Balance of Power

The unification of Germany and Italy altered the European balance of power by creating stronger, unified states, which shifted power dynamics and contributed to tensions that led to World War I.

14. Contributions of Joseph Lister and Louis Pasteur

• Joseph Lister: Developed antiseptic techniques, greatly reducing infections in surgeries.

• Louis Pasteur: Pioneered germ theory and vaccines, improving public health and medicine.

15. Albert Einstein's Theories

Einstein developed the theory of relativity (special and general), revolutionizing physics by changing our understanding of space, time, and gravity. His work is foundational to modern physics and has practical applications in technologies like GPS.

16. Sigmund Freud’s Contributions

Freud founded psychoanalysis, a method of treating mental illness through conversation. He introduced concepts like the id, ego, and superego, and his work laid the foundation for modern psychology, despite controversy.

17. Realism vs. Romanticism

Realism (mid-19th century) focused on depicting everyday life and social issues, often in a gritty, unidealized manner. Romanticism, in contrast, emphasized emotion, imagination, and idealized subjects, often nature and the past.

18. Impressionism, Postimpressionism, and Expressionism

• Impressionism: Focused on capturing light and fleeting moments with visible brushstrokes (e.g., Monet).

• Postimpressionism: Built on impressionism but with more emphasis on structure and emotion (e.g., Van Gogh, Gauguin).

• Expressionism: Focused on representing emotional experience rather than physical reality (e.g., Edvard Munch’s The Scream).

19. Decembrist Revolt

The Decembrist Revolt (1825) in Russia was an unsuccessful uprising by army officers seeking political reform after Tsar Alexander I’s death. It was significant as it marked the first significant challenge to autocracy in Russia.

20. Alexander II and Serfdom

Alexander II (reigned 1855-1881) ended serfdom in 1861, believing it was essential for modernization. However, the reform didn't improve conditions significantly for many serfs, and social unrest continued.

21. Nicolas II as a Tragic Figure

Tsar Nicolas II (1868-1917) is considered tragic due to his failure to modernize Russia and his inability to respond to political and social crises, leading to the Russian Revolution and his eventual abdication and execution.

22. Bloody Sunday

Bloody Sunday (1905) was a massacre of peaceful protesters in St. Petersburg by the Russian army. It significantly eroded trust in the Tsar and led to the 1905 Revolution.

23. Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and Bolsheviks

• Social Revolutionaries: Focused on agrarian socialism and populist movements.

• Mensheviks: A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, advocating for gradual reform and a broad base of support.

• Bolsheviks: Led by Lenin, advocating for a revolutionary overthrow of the Tsarist regime and the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat.

24. Russian Revolution of 1905

The 1905 Revolution was sparked by dissatisfaction with the Tsarist regime, exacerbated by defeats in the Russo-Japanese War. It resulted in concessions like the creation of the Duma, but the core issues of political reform and social justice remained unresolved.

25. Female Suffrage

Around the turn of the 20th century, female suffrage movements gained traction, leading to women gaining the right to vote in several countries, including New Zealand (1893), the UK (1918), and the US (1920).

26. Significance of Darwinism

Darwinism, the theory of evolution by natural selection, challenged traditional religious views and laid the groundwork for modern biology, influencing fields like genetics and anthropology.

27. Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche was a German philosopher who criticized traditional morality and Christianity. He proposed the concept of the "Übermensch" (superman) and the "will to power", emphasizing individualism and the rejection of conventional societal norms.