Unit 7 Notes: Shifts in State Power After 1900

Shifts in State Power After 1900

At the opening of the 20th century, the West dominated the global balance of power. However, many empires collapsed, giving rise to new states. Four key examples illustrate this shift:

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire was known as the "sick man of Europe".

• The Tanzimat reforms, a defensive industrialization program, failed to revive the empire.

• Young Ottomans: A group educated in Western ideas, advocated for political change to align the Ottoman Empire with democratic Western powers.

  • The Sultan initially agreed to create a parliament and constitution.

  • However, he reverted to authoritarian rule, especially when threatened by war with Russia.

• Young Turks: Another reform-minded group emerged in response to the Sultan's authoritarianism.

  • They advocated for the complete modernization of the Ottoman Empire along Western European lines.

  • Influenced by nationalism, they envisioned a Turkic-centric Ottoman state, excluding ethnic minorities.

  • In 1908, the Young Turks overthrew the Sultan and implemented reforms including:

    • Secularization of schools and law codes.

    • Establishment of political elections.

    • Imposition of Turkish language as the official language.

• These nationalistic policies alienated non-Turkish minorities, fostering their own nationalistic movements and further fracturing the empire.

• After World War I, the Ottoman Empire dissolved, and its territories were divided into independent states by the victorious powers.

Collapse of the Russian Empire

• Russia had made industrial progress by the late 19th century under Tsar Alexander II, an absolutist ruler, and his successor Nicholas II.

• The growing middle class resented the Tsar's authoritarian policies and wanted more say in government.

• The working class also had grievances due to the harsh effects of state-sponsored industrialization.

• Russian Revolution of 1905: Grievances boiled over, leading to a revolution that was suppressed by the Tsar.

  • Nicholas II made some concessions, including introducing a constitution and legalizing labor unions and political parties.

  • However, he largely ignored these reforms and continued to rule autocratically.

• World War I exacerbated existing tensions, leading to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

  • Led by Vladimir Lenin, a Marxist visionary and leader of the Bolsheviks.

  • The Bolsheviks successfully seized power and established a communist state, forming the Soviet Union.

Decline of Qing China

• China faced internal and external challenges throughout the 19th century.

• Internal Factors:

  • The Taiping Rebellion caused millions of lives and depleted China's resources.

• External Factors:

  • China lost the Opium Wars to Western powers.

  • Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War revealed the inadequacy of China's industrialization efforts compared to Japan and the West.

• Boxer Rebellion: The Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (Boxers) launched an insurrection against Qing authorities, who were seen as foreign.

  • Foreign powers intervened to suppress the rebellion and further imposed demands on China.

• A revolutionary movement led by Sun Yat-Sen, who had a Western education, gained momentum, leading to the abdication of the Qing emperor and the end of imperial rule.

• A provisional government was established under Sun's leadership but was short-lived.

• After power struggles and civil war, China became a communist state under Mao Zedong.

Mexican Revolution

• During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Mexico was ruled by dictator Porfirio Diaz.

• His policies angered almost every Mexican social class, leading to united opposition.

• Francisco Madero, Diaz's main political rival, was elected in 1910 but assassinated two years later.

• A decade-long civil war ensued, involving peasant armies led by figures like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who never gained substantive state power.

• In 1917, the revolution concluded, and Mexico became a republic with a new constitution.

  • Reforms included universal male suffrage.

  • Minimum wages for workers.

  • Separation of the Catholic Church from political power.