Anatomy and Physiology - Chapter 1 Test 1

1-1 Using the Text and Art

• Chapters are arranged in sections that build upon previously learned material.
• Text-art integration places figures close to relevant text and legends.
• Strategy 1: Read the text, then study the corresponding image.
• Learning outcomes target specific knowledge or skills.
• Strategy 2: Pay attention to learning outcomes as they are tied directly to testing.
• Strategy 3: Communicate with your instructor, follow the syllabus, stay on top of assignments, and use available study tools.

1-2 Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of internal and external body structures and their relationships.
• Physiology: Study of how living organisms perform vital functions.
• Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated.
• Principle of complementarity: Specific functions are performed by specific structures; form relates to function.
• Human anatomy: Study of the structure of the human body.
  • Gross anatomy (macroscopic): Examines large, visible structures.
  • Microscopic anatomy: Examines structures requiring magnification.
• Types of gross anatomy:
  • Surface anatomy: Anatomy of the body surface.
  • Regional anatomy: Anatomy of specific body areas.
  • Sectional anatomy: Understanding relationships through cross-sections.
  • Systemic anatomy: Anatomy of organ systems.
  • Clinical anatomy: Anatomy in clinical practice.
    • Pathological anatomy: Anatomical changes during illness.
    • Radiologic anatomy: Structures seen using imaging.
    • Surgical anatomy: Landmarks important in surgery.
  • Developmental anatomy: Anatomical changes from fertilization to adulthood.
    • Embryology: Study of early development.
• Types of microscopic anatomy:
  • Cytology: Study of cell structure.
  • Histology: Study of tissue structure.
• Human physiology: Study of the function of the human body.
  • Cell physiology: Study of cell function and chemical processes.
  • Organ physiology: Study of specific organ function.
  • Systemic physiology: Study of organ system function.
  • Pathological physiology: Study of disease effects on organs/systems.
• Physicians use anatomical, physiological, chemical, and psychological information to evaluate patients.
  • Signs: Objective disease indications (e.g., fever).
  • Symptoms: Subjective disease indications (e.g., tiredness).
• Diagnosis uses the scientific method:
  • Careful observation.
  • Proposing a hypothesis.
  • Testing the hypothesis through experimentation.

1-3 Levels of Organization

• Six levels of organization of the human body:
  • Chemical level:
    • Atoms: Smallest stable units of matter.
    • Molecules: Two or more atoms.
  • Cellular level:
    • Cells: Smallest living units in the body.
  • Tissue level:
    • Tissue: Group of cells performing specific functions.
  • Organ level:
    • Organs: Two or more tissues working together.
  • Organ system level:
    • Organ system: Group of organs interacting for a particular function.
    • Humans have 11 organ systems.
  • Organism level:
    • Organism: An individual life form.

1-4 Medical Terminology

• Medical terminology uses roots, prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms.
• Learning word parts aids in understanding anatomy and physiology.
• Eponyms (commemorative names) are often replaced by precise terms, but both may still be used.

1-5 Anatomical Terminology

• Surface anatomy: Locating structures on or near the body surface.
• Anatomical landmarks: Terms corresponding to specific surface landmarks.
• Anatomical position: Standard reference with hands at sides, palms forward, feet together.
  • Anterior view: From the front.
  • Posterior view: From the back.
  • Supine: Lying face up.
  • Prone: Lying face down.
• Anatomical regions:
  • Abdominopelvic quadrants: Four quadrants dividing the abdominopelvic region.
  • Abdominopelvic regions: Nine specific regions dividing the abdominopelvic region.
• Anatomical directions: Terms describing relative location.
• Superior: Above; at a higher level (toward the head).
• Inferior: Below; at a lower level (toward the feet).
• Anterior (Ventral): The front surface.
• Posterior (Dorsal): The back surface.
• Cranial (Cephalic): Toward the head.
• Caudal: Toward the tail (coccyx).
• Medial: Toward the midline.
• Lateral: Away from the midline.
• Proximal: Toward the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk.
• Distal: Away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk.
• Superficial: At, near, or relatively close to the body surface.
• Deep: Toward the interior of the body; farther from the surface.
• Sectional anatomy: Visualizing internal organization through sections (slices).
• Sectional plane: Single view along a two-dimensional flat surface.
  • Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.
    • A cut in this plane is a frontal section (coronal section).
  • Sagittal plane: Divides the body into left and right portions.
    • A cut in this plane is a sagittal section.
    • Midsagittal plane: Lies in the middle.
    • Parasagittal plane: Offset from the middle.
  • Transverse (horizontal) plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior portions.
    • A cut in this plane is a transverse section (cross section).

1-6 Body Cavities

• Body cavities: Closed, fluid-filled cavities lined by serous membrane; contain viscera.
• Functions:
  • Protect organs from shocks and impacts.
  • Permit size and shape changes of internal organs.
• Serous membrane (serosa):
  • Lines body cavities and covers organs.
  • Parietal serosa lines cavity.
  • Visceral serosa covers organs.
  • Serous fluid moistens membranes and reduces friction.
• Thoracic cavity:
  • Deep to the chest wall.
  • Divided from abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm.
  • Contains:
    • Pleural cavities (lungs).
    • Pericardial cavity (heart).
    • Mediastinum (connective tissue stabilizing trachea, esophagus, thymus, and major vessels; contains pericardial cavity).
• Abdominopelvic cavity:
  • Deep to abdominal and pelvic walls.
  • Extends from diaphragm to pelvis.
  • Contains:
    • Superior abdominal cavity.
    • Inferior pelvic cavity.
    • Peritoneal cavity (space lined with peritoneum).
      • Parietal peritoneum lines the body wall.
      • Visceral peritoneum covers the organs.
• Abdominal cavity:
  • Extends from diaphragm to top of pelvic bones.
  • Contains digestive organs.
  • Most organs enclosed by peritoneal cavity.
  • Retroperitoneal space:
    • Area between parietal peritoneum and muscular body wall.
    • Contains organs like pancreas and kidneys.
• Pelvic cavity:
  • Medial to pelvic bones.
  • Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and urinary bladder.
  • Contains inferior portion of peritoneal cavity.
  • Infraperitoneal: Organs inferior to peritoneal cavity (e.g., urinary bladder, distal ureters, large intestine).

1-7 Homeostasis

• Homeostasis: Continuous physiological processes maintaining a stable internal environment.
• Processes respond to external and internal changes to keep variables within normal ranges.
• Homeostatic regulation: Adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis.
  • Mechanisms:
    • Autoregulation: Automatic, local response to environmental change.
    • Extrinsic regulation: Responses controlled by nervous (electrical signals) or endocrine (chemical messengers) systems.
  • Nervous system: Rapid, short-term responses.
  • Endocrine system: Slower, more long-term responses.
• A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of:
  • Receptor: Sensor detecting stimulus or change.
  • Control center: Receives and processes information, sends commands.
  • Effector: Cell or organ carrying out commands.
• Helps limit fluctuations to keep conditions close to a set point.

1-8 Negative and Positive Feedback

• Negative feedback: Regulation opposing variation from normal.
  • Effector negates the original stimulus.
  • Helps maintain variables within a normal range.
• Positive feedback: Regulation enhancing variation from normal.
  • Stimulus produces a response amplifying the original change.
  • Used when a dangerous process must be completed quickly to restore homeostasis.
• Systems integration: Systems work together to maintain homeostasis.
  • Adjustments by one system affect others.
• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium.
  • Opposing processes are in balance.
  • Dynamic equilibrium: Systems continually adapt and adjust.
  • Normal range varies depending on conditions.
• Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to disease and possibly death.
• Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation:
  • Body temperature: Maintained by integumentary, muscular, cardiovascular, and nervous systems.
  • Nutrient concentration: Maintained by digestive, cardiovascular, urinary, and skeletal systems.
  • Oxygen/carbon dioxide levels: Maintained by respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
  • Levels of toxins and pathogens: Maintained by the lymphatic system.
  • Body fluid volume: Maintained by urinary, digestive, integumentary, cardiovascular, and lymphatic systems.
  • Waste concentration: Maintained by urinary, digestive, and cardiovascular systems.
  • Blood pressure: Maintained by cardiovascular, nervous, and endocrine systems.