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AP Psych Learning
Introduction of Learning Concepts
Learning – any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs due to experience
Behaviorism – school of psychology that accounts for behavior in terms of observable events
Conditioning – involves forming associations between environmental stimuli and responses
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Other theories reject the idea of omitting mental processes from explanations of human behavior
Social learning theories
Cognitive theories
Classical Conditioning
New reflexes from old
Pavlov was the first to describe and document the form of learning we now call classical conditioning
Terminology :
Unconditioned stimulus (US) – stimulus eliciting an automatic or reflexive response
Unconditioned response (UR) – response that is automatically produced
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – an originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with a US
Conditioned response (CR) – response that is elicited by a CS
Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is regularly paired with a US and the neutral stimulus becomes a CS that elicits a CR that is similar to the original, unlearned one
Classical conditioning is also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Extinction – when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response eventually disappears
Spontaneous recovery – after a response has been extinguished, it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time, with exposure to the conditioned stimulus
Higher‐order conditioning – a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalization – after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction
Stimulus discrimination – different responses are triggered by stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus in some way
What is really learned in classical conditioning?
For effective conditioning to occur, it is not enough to pair the stimuli; the neutral stimulus must reliably signal the unconditioned one
Conditioning is less certain in everyday life
Classical Conditioning in Real Life
Learning to like
Learning to fear
Some things may be more easily learned because of a biological predisposition based on evolutionary considerations
Little Albert example
Therapy techniques that have developed to reverse classically conditioned fears include counterconditioning and systematic desensitization
Accounting for taste – food and odor likes and dislikes
Reacting to medical treatments
Operant Conditioning
The birth of radical behaviorism
Introduced at the turn of the twentieth century
Thorndike observed that behavior is controlled by its consequences
B.F. Skinner – behavior is explainable by looking outside of the individual
The Consequences of Behavior
A response can lead to three types of consequences: neutral consequences, reinforcers : increase the probability that the response they follow will recur, and punishers : make the response they follow less likely to recur
Consequences are most effective when there is no delay between response and consequence
Primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers
Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs
Primary punishers are inherently unpleasant
Secondary reinforcers are reinforcing through association with other (possibly primary) reinforcers
Secondary punishers are punishing through association with other punishers
Positive and negative reinforcers and punishers
Reinforcers – always increase the likelihood of a response
Positive reinforcement – something pleasant is presented
Negative reinforcement – something unpleasant is removed
Punishers – decrease the likelihood of a response
Positive punishment – something unpleasant occurs
Negative punishment – something pleasant is removed
Principles of operant conditioning
Skinner boxes and cumulative recorders are often used when conditioning animals
Extinction – a previously learned response stops occurring because it is no longer reinforced
Spontaneous recovery is the return of a response that has been extinguished
Stimulus generalization – a response occurs to stimuli that resemble the stimuli present during the original learning
Stimulus discrimination – the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond only to the one that results in the reinforcer
Discriminative stimulus is a signal whether a response will pay off; it is said to exert stimulus control over the response because it signals whether the conditions in which the response will be reinforced are present
Schedule of reinforcement – the pattern of delivery of reinforcements; can have powerful effects on rate, form, and timing of behavior
Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing a response each time it occurs; most effective for initial learning
Partial or intermittent schedules – reinforcement occurs only after a certain amount of time has passed or only after a certain number of responses have been made
Superstitious behavior can be learned when behavior is coincidentally reinforced
Reinforcement on an intermittent schedule makes a response more resistant to extinction when reinforcement is discontinued
Shaping - method of getting a response to occur in the first place by reinforcing successive approximations to the desired response
Principles of conditioning are limited by genetic dispositions and physical characteristics
Skinner : The man and the myth
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
Operant principles may explain why people do not always behave as we or they would like
Behavior modification – the use of classical and operant conditioning techniques in real world settings
Pros and Cons of Punishment
Punishment is widely used as a means of controlling behavior; punishment is appropriate in situations where the individual's behavior is dangerous
Punishment is often administered inappropriately or in a state of rage
The recipient often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage
Effects can be temporary and may depend on the presence of the punisher
Most behavior is hard to punish immediately
Punishment conveys little information about how to behave differently
An action intended to punish may be reinforcing because it brings attention
Guidelines
No physical abuse
Describe appropriate behavior
Reinforce desirable behavior as soon as possible
Alternative to punishment – combine extinction of undesirable behavior with the reinforcement of desirable behavior
The problems with reward
Rewards must be tied to the activity being reinforced
Intrinsic reinforcers involve enjoyment of the task itself, feelings of accomplishment
Extrinsic reinforcement may undermine intrinsic reinforcement because the behavior is now viewed as “work” so they should be used sparingly
Learning and the Mind
Latent learning
Tolman’s experiment with rats demonstrated latent learning
Latent learning is learning that is not immediately revealed through a change in behavior
Latent learning occurs without obvious reinforcement
Perceptions of the model and of themselves influence individuals’ learning
Social‐cognitive learning theory
The importance of observational learning was demonstrated by Bandura
AP Psych Learning
Introduction of Learning Concepts
Learning – any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs due to experience
Behaviorism – school of psychology that accounts for behavior in terms of observable events
Conditioning – involves forming associations between environmental stimuli and responses
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Other theories reject the idea of omitting mental processes from explanations of human behavior
Social learning theories
Cognitive theories
Classical Conditioning
New reflexes from old
Pavlov was the first to describe and document the form of learning we now call classical conditioning
Terminology :
Unconditioned stimulus (US) – stimulus eliciting an automatic or reflexive response
Unconditioned response (UR) – response that is automatically produced
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – an originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with a US
Conditioned response (CR) – response that is elicited by a CS
Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is regularly paired with a US and the neutral stimulus becomes a CS that elicits a CR that is similar to the original, unlearned one
Classical conditioning is also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Extinction – when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response eventually disappears
Spontaneous recovery – after a response has been extinguished, it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time, with exposure to the conditioned stimulus
Higher‐order conditioning – a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalization – after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction
Stimulus discrimination – different responses are triggered by stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus in some way
What is really learned in classical conditioning?
For effective conditioning to occur, it is not enough to pair the stimuli; the neutral stimulus must reliably signal the unconditioned one
Conditioning is less certain in everyday life
Classical Conditioning in Real Life
Learning to like
Learning to fear
Some things may be more easily learned because of a biological predisposition based on evolutionary considerations
Little Albert example
Therapy techniques that have developed to reverse classically conditioned fears include counterconditioning and systematic desensitization
Accounting for taste – food and odor likes and dislikes
Reacting to medical treatments
Operant Conditioning
The birth of radical behaviorism
Introduced at the turn of the twentieth century
Thorndike observed that behavior is controlled by its consequences
B.F. Skinner – behavior is explainable by looking outside of the individual
The Consequences of Behavior
A response can lead to three types of consequences: neutral consequences, reinforcers : increase the probability that the response they follow will recur, and punishers : make the response they follow less likely to recur
Consequences are most effective when there is no delay between response and consequence
Primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers
Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs
Primary punishers are inherently unpleasant
Secondary reinforcers are reinforcing through association with other (possibly primary) reinforcers
Secondary punishers are punishing through association with other punishers
Positive and negative reinforcers and punishers
Reinforcers – always increase the likelihood of a response
Positive reinforcement – something pleasant is presented
Negative reinforcement – something unpleasant is removed
Punishers – decrease the likelihood of a response
Positive punishment – something unpleasant occurs
Negative punishment – something pleasant is removed
Principles of operant conditioning
Skinner boxes and cumulative recorders are often used when conditioning animals
Extinction – a previously learned response stops occurring because it is no longer reinforced
Spontaneous recovery is the return of a response that has been extinguished
Stimulus generalization – a response occurs to stimuli that resemble the stimuli present during the original learning
Stimulus discrimination – the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond only to the one that results in the reinforcer
Discriminative stimulus is a signal whether a response will pay off; it is said to exert stimulus control over the response because it signals whether the conditions in which the response will be reinforced are present
Schedule of reinforcement – the pattern of delivery of reinforcements; can have powerful effects on rate, form, and timing of behavior
Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing a response each time it occurs; most effective for initial learning
Partial or intermittent schedules – reinforcement occurs only after a certain amount of time has passed or only after a certain number of responses have been made
Superstitious behavior can be learned when behavior is coincidentally reinforced
Reinforcement on an intermittent schedule makes a response more resistant to extinction when reinforcement is discontinued
Shaping - method of getting a response to occur in the first place by reinforcing successive approximations to the desired response
Principles of conditioning are limited by genetic dispositions and physical characteristics
Skinner : The man and the myth
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
Operant principles may explain why people do not always behave as we or they would like
Behavior modification – the use of classical and operant conditioning techniques in real world settings
Pros and Cons of Punishment
Punishment is widely used as a means of controlling behavior; punishment is appropriate in situations where the individual's behavior is dangerous
Punishment is often administered inappropriately or in a state of rage
The recipient often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage
Effects can be temporary and may depend on the presence of the punisher
Most behavior is hard to punish immediately
Punishment conveys little information about how to behave differently
An action intended to punish may be reinforcing because it brings attention
Guidelines
No physical abuse
Describe appropriate behavior
Reinforce desirable behavior as soon as possible
Alternative to punishment – combine extinction of undesirable behavior with the reinforcement of desirable behavior
The problems with reward
Rewards must be tied to the activity being reinforced
Intrinsic reinforcers involve enjoyment of the task itself, feelings of accomplishment
Extrinsic reinforcement may undermine intrinsic reinforcement because the behavior is now viewed as “work” so they should be used sparingly
Learning and the Mind
Latent learning
Tolman’s experiment with rats demonstrated latent learning
Latent learning is learning that is not immediately revealed through a change in behavior
Latent learning occurs without obvious reinforcement
Perceptions of the model and of themselves influence individuals’ learning
Social‐cognitive learning theory
The importance of observational learning was demonstrated by Bandura