Unit 5: State Building and the Search for Order in the 17th Century

Crises in Europe and French Absolutism

• beginning of the 17th century (1600s):
  • inflation of prices caused by the Price Revolution in the 16th century
  • recessions/economic decline in many parts of Europe
  • climate shift (mini ice age) causing crop failure and famine
  • population increase since the Black Death, larger populations caused food shortages
  • "bad blood" between Catholics and Protestant groups
  • anger and desperation made Europe a ripe environment hysteria
• witchcraft craze:
  • 100k to 200k women were put on trial for witchcraft and a majority was sentenced to death
  • 'trials' were consisted of torture, confession, and burning at stake, and were held in places divided between Protestants and Catholics
  • targeted poor single women >45 (midwives, apothecaries, 'cat ladies') to blame for the poor conditions in Europe
  • theologians/church scholars believed women were weak and more susceptible to advances of the devil
  • the witchcraft craze ended at the end of the 17th century
• Martin Luther, peasant revolts, brief end to unrest:
  • 95 theses caused commotion in the Holy Roman Empire --> Protestants were persecuted in some small states in the Holy Roman Empire and 300k peasants rebelled (denounced by Luther)
  • conflicts ended with Peace of Augsburg in 1555:
    • signed by Emperor Charles V
    • prince of each state could determine religion in their region (some Protestantism, mostly catholic, few mixed)
    • grace period for people to move kingdoms
    • recognizes Lutheranism not Calvinism or Anabaptism but didn't persecute
    • uneasy peace
• 30 Years' War:
  • Catholics vs militant Calvinists
  • fighting in Holy Roman Empire but Europe-wide struggle
  • competition between Habsburg dynasty (Holy Roman Empire/Spain) and Bourbon dynasty (France) for European leadership
  • 4 main phases
    • Bohemian (Czech)(1618-1625)
    • Danish (1625-1629)
      • first two were local religious conflicts
    • Swedish (1630-1635)
    • Franco-Swedish (1635-1648)
      • last two were Europe-wide political conflicts
• Bohemian phase: 
  • kings (usually a Habsburg) were elected among princes in Holy Roman Empire, and Protestants had religious freedom per the Peace of Augsburg
  • Archduke Ferdinand elected as king and tried to re-catholicize people despite the Peace of Augsburg 
  • rebellion in Bohemia (defenestration of Prague) where representatives sent by Ferdinand (to re-catholicize the people) were thrown out of a window
  • elected Protestant ruler Frederick V and seized Bohemia
  • Ferdinand mustered troops from the rest of the Holy Roman Empire with reinforcements from Spain (Habsburg)
  • Ferdinand crushed the rebellion at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620
  • the Spanish gained territory needed to attack the Dutch in the North to stop the rebellion
• Danish phase: 
  • king Christian IV of Denmark led troops in northern Germany to fight Catholics on behalf of Lutheran princes (promised support but never delivered)
    • underestimated Holy Roman Empire
    • wanted to win prestige
    • allied with United Provinces/Netherlands who wanted to win formal independence and weaken Catholicism
  • defeated by General Wallenstein
  • ended Danish supremacy in Baltic Sea region
  • Ferdinand issues Edict of Reinstitution, outlawing Lutheran and Calvinist practices in the Holy Roman Empire
• Swedish phase: 
  • Gustavus Adolphus revived Sweden into a military power with financial support from France (Catholic nations) and was among the 1st generals to use mobile artillery (movable cannons)
  • He conquered territory deep in the Holy Roman Empire to not only fight Catholicism but keep control over the Baltic Sea region
  • Adolphus was killed in battle, Wallenstein was assassinated 
  • Sweden kept control of Holy Roman Empire territory in North Germany but lost in the south
  • Ferdinand repealed the Edict of Reinstitution
• Franco-Swedish phase:
  • France (though Catholic) entered the war on the side of Sweden with the urging of Cardinal Richelieu to weaken the Holy Roman Empire and Spain
    • France was surrounded by Habsburg so they felt uneasy
  • Sweden and France switch roles - Sweden bankrolls France
  • battle of Rocroi (1643) ended with French victory and ended Spanish dominance
• Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the 30 Years' War:
  • religious freedom within the Holy Roman Empire for Lutherans
  • recognize Calvinism
  • United Provinces/Netherlands and Switzerland formally recognized as independent by Holy Roman Empire and Spain
  • power and prestige of the Holy Roman Empire declined and France's on the rise
• Richelieu and Mazarin:
  • regents for Louis XIII and XIV 
  • not good at balancing budget; France in lots of debt
  • Richelieu (XIII): 
    • created spy network to test loyalty of nobles
    • intendants put nobles in their place
    • tried to reform corrupt and inefficient tax system
  • Mazarin (XIV):
    • tried to continue Richelieu's policies
    • put down two frondes (rebellions)
• Louis XIV:
  • before he came into power, France was ruled by Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin who used diplomacy and military to increase French territory and influence
  • eventually came into power
    • declared himself sun king
    • ruled absolutely (divine right: chosen by God)
    • "I am the state:" complete, total control and rule
    • built Versailles and increased the prestige of France
• reign of Louis XIV:
  • moved capital to Versailles
    • home, office, royal court
    • idle activities
    • luxurious
    • other palaces' model
    • meant to distract nobles from affairs of the state (so Louis can rule everything)
    • social activities attended according to status
    • nobles were forced to compete with each other for positions of power by doing menial tasks
  • created large standing army
  • limited powers of nobles (especially high ranking nobles and royal princes)
    • removed royal princes from royal council
    • exercised control over Parlements
    • made subservient lower nobles ministers
  • overturned Edict of Nantes 
  • persecuted Huguenots and burned churches and schools 
    • Huguenots go to German states (strengthens German economy and exiles convinces opposition to Louis)
  • waged 4 wars (1667-1713)
    • first war - France gains bits of land
    • Dutch war - gained land in Spanish Netherlands
    • War of League of Augsburg - territory added in west (Alsace region)
    • War of Spanish Succession - Bourbon on throne but separate from French monarchy
  • Europe's other powerful nations formed coalitions to protect themselves from French aggression
• legacy:
  • consolidated most of France's power within the king
  • model for European monarchies (absolute powers, cool palace, etc.)
  • expanded borders and colonial holdings
  • reign known as the Age of Louis
  • gained huge debt (paid by disgruntled peasants)
  • made many enemies for France (Holy Roman Empire, England, etc.)

Other European Nations and Absolute Monarchs

• Ottoman empire:
  • this Muslim empire replaced the Byzantines in 1453
  • dominated eastern Mediterranean
  • European power worthy of trade and alliance by the 1600s
    • Ottoman expansion to the east and south helped form this opinion
  • had an organized government
  • had an efficient army of Janissaries
    • Janissaries were European boys that were captured at a young age to be basically enslaved in the Ottoman military
    • Because of this and religious differences, European nations hated the Ottomans
  • attempted to conquer eastern Europe in the second half of the 17th century but was defeated by a coalition of European nations (Poland, Holy Roman Empire, Bavarians, Saxons)
• Ottoman rule: 
  • Mehmet passed on rule of empire to his children (Osman dynasty, lasted ~600 years)
  • no clear system for passing power led to fighting among the emperor's children:
    • they imprisoned or killed one another
      • imprisoned siblings didn't know how to rule when rulers were overthrown
• Ottoman decline:
  • the Ottomans were successful but they lost power and territory slowly
  • the Ottomans were super corrupt
  • inflation became a problem
  • traders refused to trade with them because they hated them (Janissaries) and there were other more abundant routes
  • Ottomans clashed with other Muslims in the region (not Sunni but Safavids) but they were tolerant of Jews and Christians
  • Ottomans' losses in Europe and continued warfare quickened their decline
• Poland/Lithuania:
  • 1386 - informal union between Polish and Lithuanian monarchies --> merged in 1569, creating the largest Christian kingdom in Europe territory-wise
  • government like the Holy Roman Empire (election of king by Sejm, a general assembly of nobles)
  • when the Jagiello dynasty ended, Poles elected foreigners as kings for new alliances
  • the Sejm functioned with Liberum Veto (1652) which allowed 1 person to derail a new legislation
    • the two policies above made Poland weak and an easy target
• Sweden and Denmark:
  • constantly competed for dominance in the Baltic Sea area
  • both Protestant nations
  • both suffered costly losses during the 30 Years War and wars with each other
  • both had kings limited by the power of general assemblies, therefore unable to form cohesive nations
• United Provinces: 
  • the Dutch created a republic (America's modern form of government) after a successful rebellion (funded by Isabella) against the Spanish and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
  • they were a world power because of sea trade domination (had a strong navy)
  • most of the nation was below sea level so the Dutch literally made land by using windmills to harness wind power to pump water upstream
    • also sectioned off the sea with dams and drained the excess water to make land
  • had unusual government where corporations played a large role in Dutch culture and success
• Dutch:
  • competed with historically older and more powerful nations for control of Indian Ocean trade 
    • Dutch colonies and claims: Sri Lanka, most of spice islands, New York, parts of South America, Africa, and Australia
  • only group allowed trade rights in Japan (many groups tried) because they didn't push Christianity onto the Japanese
  • Dutch East India Company:
    • corporation with more power than the government
    • violent
    • responsible for Netherland's sea trade domination
• Tudor Dynasty:
  • 1485-1603
  • ruled England well
  • power of the parliament grows --> kings consult with the parliament before making tax-type decisions
  • Tudor monarch Elizabeth I:
    • 1558-1603
    • believed in the divine right to rule but shared power with parliament
    • thought each person was born into their proper place in society
    • viewed her role as 'caring mother' to her people
    • Protestant but tries to make peace with Catholics
• Elizabeth I of England: 
  • dies without a heir --> throne passes to the Stuarts of Scotland
  • James I and Charles I ruled with an iron fist (absolute monarchs) and were Catholic
    • England was Protestant, Catholics persecuted
    • gunpowder plot: failed attempt to blow up king James
• English Civil War:
  • 1642-1651, parliament vs king
  • during Charles I's reign
  • people are arrested and imprisoned without being charged of a crime or given a trial
  • Charles tried to disband parliament --> parliament tried and executed the king's officials
  • Charles had soldiers try to capture parliament's leaders but they escape, leading to the English Civil War
  • Charles I loses the war and is replaced by a republic under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell (founded the new English Republic (includes representatives, democracy, free press and elections))
  • Cromwell has trials for the king, executes the royal family, and nobles are next
  • Cromwell fought a brutal war to forcefully incorporate Ireland into the UK which caused conflicts
  • English nobles who support the monarchy work against Cromwell
  • Cromwell suspends the democratic processes he put in place (England becomes a military state)
  • Cromwell acts like a king and is hated
  • when Cromwell died, people wanted the monarchy back
• Glorious Revolution:
  • 1st set of kings didn't work out because they were absolute monarchs and relatives of the hated Stuarts
  • parliament invited William of Orange and his wife Mary over from Holland to replace the king
  • king James fled and does not resist his overthrow (dubbed the Glorious Revolution because there was no bloodshed or power struggle)
  • before William and Mary take power, parliament made them sign the English Bill of Rights
• English Bill of Rights:
  • made Parliament more powerful than monarchs
    • parliament had all financial power
    • king could not interfere with parliamentary debates/meetings
    • guaranteed fair trial by jury (habeas corpus)
    • put limits on fines
    • banned torture
• decline of Spain:
  • influx of tons of wealth from Spain's colonies made its inflation soar
  • Phillip II made poor decisions:
    • spent a fortune on Spanish Armada most of which sunk
  • Phillip III spent money on parties and 'miracle working' relics from the church and pushed Spain closer to bankruptcy
  • Phillip IV tried to revive the power of the Spanish monarchy by decreasing the power of the church over the state and nobility (church and nobles became rich)
    • appointed a capable minister (Gaspar de Guzman)
    • got involved with the 30 Years' War and failed to win back the United Provinces (huge expense for Spain --> also had to surrender border lands with France)
  • internal rebellions and civil war engulfed Spain for years --> the French will be successful in installing a Bourbon family member to the throne of Spain
• ascension of Prussia:
  • began as a collection of German-speaking states (Brandenburg, West and East Prussia) and united by the Hohenzollern family when they seized church lands in the region and created a new nation
  • Frederick William the Great Elector came in power during the 30 Years' War:
    • created standing army of 40k
    • creating the army was expensive so he gave nobles full control over peasants (heavy taxes on peasants) 
    • to run the government as he saw fit, he had sons of nobles/Junkers serve as high-ranking officers in the military
    • fostered a strong bond between military and state
    • constructed canals, roads, and bridges
• Leopold I of Austria:
  • emperor when Ottomans laid siege to Vienna 
  • pushed back Ottomans and stole pieces of the Ottoman Empire (Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia) and established empire of their own away from the Holy Roman Empire
  • gained large pieces of Italy from Spain during the War for Spanish Succession
  • the empire was hard to hold together because there were people of many nationalities and they had local governments that don't interact with Austria's official government
• Peter the Great of Russia:
  • increases power of Russian nobility
  • reorganized Russia into administrative provinces
  • reorganized military and increased size
  • included mandatory service from nobles (boyars) in the military or civil offices
  • peasants could become nobles through distinguished services in the military
  • his goals were expansion and cultural and governmental modernization

Mannerism and Baroque

• Mannerist paintings:
  • late Renaissance period (1520s-1590s)
  • came from Italian word for style
  • Mannerist painters: 
    • Michelangelo
    • Leonardo
    • Raphael
  • many similarities with Renaissance art:
    • religious figures
    • figures of mythology
    • rich color
    • detailed
  • differences:
    • not striving for perfection (imperfect by design)
    • figures are slightly distorted
    • unrealistic body proportions
    • scale and perspective are distorted
    • impossible poses
    • juxtaposition
    • shows not the big moment but tension leading up to it
    • looks nice but something is wrong
• Baroque art:
  • Baroque style began ~1600 in Rome and spread through Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries
  • development was linked with Catholic Church wanting to win back membership from Protestants (many people couldn't read so Baroque art started as propaganda for the illiterate through religious ads, etc.)
  • Reformation and Counter-Reformation were the most important factors of the Baroque era
  • Baroque art and architecture --> most popular and known, flourished 1600-1750
  • main features:
    • exaggerated motion
    • clear detail
    • drama
    • rich, deep color
    • emphasized contrast
    • honest realism
  • main focus was on the most dramatic moment unlike Mannerism
  • tried to capture a moment in time
  • open to people's interpretation of what events would look like if it was a biblical scene
  • also an architectural style
  • notable artists:
    • Rembrandt
    • Vermeer
    • Caravaggio