Unit A: The Biosphere, Ch 1-2

1. Identify the 3 parts of the biosphere.

- Lithosphere: The Earth's solid outer layer, including the crust and upper mantle.

- Hydrosphere: All water bodies on Earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

- Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth.

2. Draw a diagram of the water cycle.

- (Since I can't draw here, I'll describe it):

- Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, and rivers turns into water vapor.

- Condensation: Water vapor cools and forms clouds.

- Precipitation: Water falls as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

- Runoff: Water flows over the ground into water bodies.

- Infiltration: Water soaks into the ground, replenishing groundwater.

3. How is carbon cycled? Discuss how the greenhouse effect is related to the carbon cycle.

- Carbon Cycle: Carbon is cycled through the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms via processes like photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion.

- Greenhouse Effect: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, maintaining Earth's temperature. Excess CO₂ from fossil fuels enhances this effect, leading to global warming.

4. What is nitrogen fixation? How does it occur?

- Nitrogen Fixation: The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into forms usable by living organisms (e.g., ammonia, NH₃).

- Occurrence:

- Biologically: By bacteria in the soil or root nodules of legumes.

- Industrially: Through the Haber-Bosch process.

- Abiotically: By lightning.

5. What is denitrification? How does it occur?

- Denitrification: The process of converting nitrates (NO₃⁻) back into nitrogen gas (N₂), returning it to the atmosphere.

- Occurrence: By anaerobic bacteria in oxygen-poor environments, like waterlogged soils.

6. Describe the phosphorus cycle.

- Phosphorus moves between rocks, soil, water, and living organisms. It cycles through weathering of rocks (releasing phosphate), absorption by plants, consumption by animals, and return to soil through decomposition.

7. Draw a food web and label the trophic levels. Describe the difference between food chains and food webs.

- Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains showing how energy and nutrients flow through an ecosystem.

- Food Chain: A linear sequence showing who eats whom.

- Trophic Levels: Producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), tertiary consumers (top predators).

8. Define photoautotroph. Give examples.

- Photoautotroph: Organisms that produce their own food using light energy through photosynthesis. Examples: plants, algae, cyanobacteria.

9. Define heterotroph. Define herbivore.

- Heterotroph: Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms.

- Herbivore: A type of heterotroph that eats only plants.

10. Describe what decomposers do in a food chain/web. Give some examples.

- Decomposers: Break down dead organisms and waste, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. Examples: fungi, bacteria.

11. What are the 3 types of pyramids? Which pyramid is most useful? Why?

- Pyramid of Numbers: Shows the number of organisms at each trophic level.

- Pyramid of Biomass: Shows the total mass of organisms at each trophic level.

- Pyramid of Energy: Shows the energy content at each trophic level. Most useful because it shows the actual energy transfer efficiency.

12. What may an inverted pyramid represent?

- An inverted pyramid of numbers or biomass can occur in ecosystems where a large number of small producers support fewer but larger consumers, e.g., a tree supporting many insects.

13. What is the 1st and 2nd Law of Thermodynamics? Use these laws to explain why the numbers of organisms decrease as you move up a food chain/web/pyramid.

- 1st Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

- 2nd Law: Energy transfer results in some energy being lost as heat.

- Explanation: Energy decreases at each trophic level due to metabolic processes and heat loss, resulting in fewer organisms at higher levels.

### Unit B: Ecosystems and Population Change, Ch 3-4

1. What are abiotic and biotic factors? Also give examples.

- Abiotic Factors: Non-living components of an ecosystem (e.g., sunlight, temperature, water, soil).

- Biotic Factors: Living components of an ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria).

2. Draw a flow chart with the following words: population, organism, biosphere, ecosystem, and community. Also define and give an example of each.

- Flow Chart:

- Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

- Definitions and Examples:

- Organism: A single living entity (e.g., a wolf).

- Population: Group of the same species in an area (e.g., pack of wolves).

- Community: Different populations living together (e.g., wolves, deer, trees).

- Ecosystem: Community plus abiotic factors (e.g., forest ecosystem).

- Biosphere: All ecosystems on Earth.

3. List and describe Darwin’s 5 points in his theory of natural selection. What evidence did he use to prove his theory?

- Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can survive.

- Variation: Individuals vary in traits.

- Competition: Individuals compete for limited resources.

- Adaptation: Traits that improve survival are passed on.

- Descent with Modification: Over time, these traits become common.

- Evidence: Fossils, geographical distribution, comparative anatomy, embryology.

4. How are fossils used as direct evidence for evolution?

- Fossils show the progression of life forms from simple to more complex over time and reveal transitional forms linking different species.

5. What is embryology and how does it indirectly provide evidence for evolution?

- Embryology: Study of embryos. Similarities in early development stages among different species suggest common ancestry.

6. Contrast homologous and analogous structures. Also give examples.

- Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different species due to common ancestry (e.g., human arm and bat wing).

- Analogous Structures: Similar functions but different structures and evolutionary origins (e.g., bird wing and insect wing).

7. Define and give an example of a vestigial structure.

- Vestigial Structure: Remnants of structures that had functions in ancestors (e.g., human appendix).

8. What is convergent evolution? What is divergent evolution?

- Convergent Evolution: Unrelated species evolve similar traits (e.g., wings of bats and birds).

- Divergent Evolution: Related species evolve different traits (e.g., Darwin's finches).

9. Describe Lamarck’s theory of acquired characteristics.

- Lamarck proposed that organisms can pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring (e.g., giraffes stretching their necks). This theory is now discredited.

### Unit C: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration, Ch 5

1. What colors of the visible spectrum of light (ROYGBIV) are most readily absorbed by chloroplasts? Why are chloroplasts green? Are chloroplasts the only light-absorbing pigment that can exist in a plant cell? Why do the leaves of a tree change color during fall?

- Absorbed Colors: Red and blue.

- Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll, which reflects green light.

- Other Pigments: Yes, such as carotenoids (yellow, orange).

- Color Change: Chlorophyll breaks down, revealing other pigments.

2. Write the equation for photosynthesis. Where does it take place in the leaf? What organisms carry out photosynthesis?

- Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

- Location: Chloroplasts in the leaf cells.

- Organisms: Plants, algae, some bacteria.

3. Draw and label a diagram of a chloroplast.

- (Description since drawing is not possible):

- Outer membrane

- Inner membrane

- Thylakoid

- Granum (stack of thylakoids)

- Stroma (fluid around thylakoids)

4. Describe the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis. Show all steps involved and where they occur in the chloroplast.

- Light Reactions:

- Location: Th

ylakoid membrane.

- Steps:

1. Light absorption by chlorophyll.

2. Water splitting, releasing oxygen.

3. ATP and NADPH formation.

- Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle):

- Location: Stroma.

- Steps:

1. Carbon fixation.

2. Reduction phase.

3. Regeneration of RuBP.

4. Glucose formation.

5. What makes up ATP? What is ATP used for?

- ATP Composition: Adenine, ribose (sugar), three phosphate groups.

- Uses: Energy currency for cellular processes.

6. What is the equation of cellular respiration? Where does cellular respiration occur? What organisms carry out cellular respiration?

- Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP

- Location: Mitochondria.

- Organisms: Most eukaryotic organisms, including plants and animals.

7. List the products of glycolysis. Where does this occur in a cell?

- Products: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH.

- Location: Cytoplasm.

8. List the functions of the Krebs/citric acid cycle.

- Functions: Produces electron carriers (NADH, FADH₂), ATP, and CO₂.

9. Describe the electron transport system (cytochrome transport chain) of cellular respiration.

- Description:

- Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

- Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ are transferred through protein complexes.

- Protons are pumped across the membrane, creating a gradient.

- ATP synthase uses this gradient to produce ATP.

10. Put all the steps of aerobic cellular respiration in order.

- Glycolysis → Pyruvate oxidation → Krebs cycle → Electron transport chain.

11. What are the products of alcohol fermentation? What are the products of lactic acid fermentation? When and where do these processes take place?

- Alcohol Fermentation: Ethanol, CO₂, ATP (occurs in yeast cells).

- Lactic Acid Fermentation: Lactic acid, ATP (occurs in muscle cells under anaerobic conditions).

12. How do you know if your muscle cells are going through lactic acid fermentation?

- Signs: Muscle fatigue and soreness due to lactic acid buildup.

13. What is the difference between anaerobic cellular respiration and aerobic cellular respiration?

- Anaerobic: Occurs without oxygen, produces less ATP.

- Aerobic: Requires oxygen, produces more ATP.

14. Describe ways that one could stop cellular respiration (ex. Carbon monoxide).

- Inhibitors:

- Cyanide: Blocks electron transport chain.

- Carbon monoxide: Binds to hemoglobin, preventing oxygen transport.

- Oligomycin: Inhibits ATP synthase.

15. How many ATPs are made by aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration?

- Aerobic: ~36-38 ATP per glucose.

- Anaerobic: ~2 ATP per glucose.

### Unit D: Human Body Systems

#### Nutrients and Digestion, Ch 6

1. What is an enzyme and how does it work? What is the active site of an enzyme? What major nutrients form enzymes?

- Enzyme: Biological catalyst that speeds up reactions.

- Active Site: Region where substrate binds and reaction occurs.

- Nutrients: Proteins.

2. Describe 3 ways enzymes are ‘turned off’ or their activity is slowed down.

- Inhibitors: Competitive, non-competitive inhibitors.

- Environmental Changes: pH, temperature.

- Feedback Inhibition: End product inhibits enzyme activity.

3. Differentiate between a competitive inhibitor and non-competitive inhibitor.

- Competitive Inhibitor: Binds to the active site, blocking substrate.

- Non-competitive Inhibitor: Binds elsewhere, altering the enzyme's shape and function.

4. Draw a graph of enzyme activity that shows an enzyme’s activity when it is in and not in its ‘optimal pH or temperature zone’.

- (Description since drawing is not possible):

- Enzyme activity peaks at optimal pH/temperature.

- Activity decreases sharply outside optimal range.

5. Define monomers and polymers:

- Monomers: Small, basic units (e.g., glucose, amino acids).

- Polymers: Large molecules made of monomers (e.g., starch, proteins).

6. What is a lipid? Carbohydrate? Protein? What are their functions in the body?

- Lipid: Energy storage, cell membranes (e.g., fats, oils).

- Carbohydrate: Energy source (e.g., sugars, starches).

- Protein: Structural, enzymatic, regulatory roles (e.g., enzymes, hormones).

7. Define, differentiate, give examples, and uses of monosaccharide, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

- Monosaccharide: Single sugar unit (e.g., glucose).

- Disaccharide: Two monosaccharides linked (e.g., sucrose).

- Polysaccharide: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen).

8. Give all the monomers of the three nutrients.

- Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides.

- Proteins: Amino acids.

- Lipids: Fatty acids and glycerol.

9. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? Give examples of each.

- Saturated Fats: No double bonds, solid at room temp (e.g., butter).

- Unsaturated Fats: One or more double bonds, liquid at room temp (e.g., olive oil).

10. Define and give the difference between protein denaturation and coagulation? What are at least 2 ways to denature or coagulate a protein?

- Denaturation: Loss of structure and function (e.g., by heat, pH change).

- Coagulation: Clumping of denatured proteins (e.g., cooking eggs).

11. Define and differentiate between physical and chemical digestion.

- Physical Digestion: Mechanical breakdown (e.g., chewing).

- Chemical Digestion: Enzymatic breakdown (e.g., saliva breaking down starch).

12. Trace the path of a piece of food from the time it enters the mouth until the waste leaves the body. Give key features of each organ.

- Mouth: Chewing, saliva enzymes.

- Esophagus: Peristalsis moves food.

- Stomach: Acid and enzymes digest food.

- Small Intestine: Nutrient absorption.

- Large Intestine: Water absorption, waste formation.

- Rectum/Anus: Waste excretion.

13. Discuss the role of the liver and gallbladder in digestion.

- Liver: Produces bile for fat emulsification.

- Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile.

14. How is the surface area of the small intestine increased? Why is this important?

- Increased by: Villi and microvilli.

- Importance: Maximizes nutrient absorption.

15. What is peristalsis? Identify two places it occurs.

- Peristalsis: Wave-like muscle contractions.

- Locations: Esophagus, intestines.

16. Is fiber (cellulose) digested? Explain.

- No, humans lack enzymes to break down cellulose.

17. Why is chewing important in digestion?

- Increases surface area for enzymes to act, aids in mechanical breakdown.

18. How and where are all the monomers of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates absorbed? What happens to the nutrients after they are absorbed?

- Absorption: Small intestine.

- After Absorption: Transported via blood to cells for use or storage.

19. Why is the diet of a person whose gallbladder has been removed restricted in fat intake?

- No bile storage; less efficient fat digestion.

20. What is the role of the large intestine?

- Absorbs water, forms and expels waste.

21. What does the epiglottis do?

- Prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing.

#### Respiration, Ch 7

1. Describe the path of a molecule of oxygen as it moves from the air to a blood cell. Give key features of each part of this respiratory tract.

- Pathway: Nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli → Blood (via capillaries).

2. What does the nasal cavity do to the air that is inhaled?

- Warms, moistens, and filters air.

3. How do bronchioles differ from the trachea?

- Bronchioles: Smaller air

ways, lack cartilage rings.

- Trachea: Larger airway, supported by cartilage rings.

4. Where does gas exchange with blood occur in the respiratory tract? Why does it occur in this location?

- Location: Alveoli.

- Reason: Thin walls and large surface area facilitate diffusion.

5. Why must the internal surface of the lungs be kept moist? What ensures the surface of the lungs are moist?

- Importance: Aids in gas diffusion.

- Maintenance: Mucus and surfactant.

6. Why are there tiny hairs (cilia) and mucus in the respiratory tract?

- Function: Trap and remove particles and pathogens.

7. What is the role of the cartilage rings (C-rings) that line the trachea and bronchi?

- Function: Keep airways open.

8. Describe the movement of your ribs, intercostal muscles, and diaphragm as you breathe in and out.

- Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, ribs move up/out.

- Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, ribs move down/in.

9. Explain why a pressure gradient must be made to allow proper inhaling and exhaling.

- Reason: Air flows from high to low pressure; gradient allows air movement.

10. Define the following terms: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, vital capacity. What device takes these measurements?

- Tidal Volume: Normal breath volume.

- Inspiratory Reserve Volume: Extra inhaled air after a normal breath.

- Expiratory Reserve Volume: Extra exhaled air after a normal breath.

- Vital Capacity: Total exchangeable air volume.

- Device: Spirometer.

11. Why must the respiratory system and the circulatory system work together?

- Reason: To deliver oxygen to cells and remove CO₂.

12. Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin. What blood cell contains hemoglobin? Explain how hemoglobin picks up oxygen.

- Structure: Protein with four heme groups.

- Location: Red blood cells.

- Function: Binds oxygen in lungs, releases in tissues.

13. Describe the ways oxygen is transported in the blood.

- Methods: Bound to hemoglobin, dissolved in plasma.

14. If the blood has lots of carbon dioxide in it, what would its pH be? Explain.

- pH: Lower (acidic); CO₂ forms carbonic acid in blood.

15. What are chemoreceptors? How do they control breathing rate?

- Function: Detect blood CO₂ and O₂ levels.

- Control: Adjust breathing rate via brainstem signals.

16. How does carbon monoxide affect the respiratory system?

- Effect: Binds to hemoglobin, preventing oxygen transport.

17. Describe the ways smoking destroys your respiratory tract.

- Damage: Cilia destruction, increased mucus, inflammation, lung damage (emphysema).

#### Circulation and Immunity, Ch 8

1. Describe the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins, and venules.

- Arteries: Thick walls, carry blood away from heart.

- Arterioles: Smaller arteries, regulate blood flow.

- Capillaries: Thin walls, site of gas/nutrient exchange.

- Veins: Thinner walls, carry blood to heart.

- Venules: Smaller veins, collect blood from capillaries.

2. What ensures 1-way flow of blood in arteries? What ensures 1-way flow in veins?

- Arteries: Blood pressure.

- Veins: Valves.

3. Describe the blood pressure in arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins, and venules.

- Arteries: High pressure.

- Arterioles: Lower than arteries.

- Capillaries: Low pressure.

- Veins/Venules: Lowest pressure.

4. Describe the main components of blood and their main roles in the body. Where do blood cells get made?

- Components: Red blood cells (O₂ transport), white blood cells (immune response), platelets (clotting), plasma (transport medium).

- Production: Bone marrow.

5. Do all arteries carry oxygenated blood? Do all veins carry deoxygenated blood?

- Arteries: Mostly, except pulmonary artery.

- Veins: Mostly, except pulmonary vein.

6. Sketch a diagram of the heart. Label the 2 ventricles, 2 atria, arteries and veins.

- (Description due to sketch limitation):

- Left/Right Atria: Upper chambers.

- Left/Right Ventricles: Lower chambers.

- Arteries: Aorta, pulmonary arteries.

- Veins: Vena cava, pulmonary veins.

7. What creates the Lub Dub sounds in the heart?

- Lub: Closure of AV valves.

- Dub: Closure of semilunar valves.

8. Define diastolic and systolic blood pressure. What device takes blood pressure?

- Systolic: Pressure during heart contraction.

- Diastolic: Pressure during heart relaxation.

- Device: Sphygmomanometer.

9. What factors increase blood pressure in the body?

- Factors: Stress, high salt intake, obesity, lack of exercise.

10. How is the heart rate controlled? Describe how the pacemaker works.

- Control: Autonomic nervous system, hormones.

- Pacemaker: SA node generates electrical impulses.

11. Explain how capillaries can push oxygen and nutrients outwards at the arteriole end, and allow CO₂ and waste inwards at the venule end.

- Mechanism: Hydrostatic pressure at arteriole end pushes out nutrients; osmotic pressure at venule end pulls in wastes.

12. How does the heart receive oxygen?

- Source: Coronary arteries.

13. Describe the differences between systemic, pulmonary, and cardiac circulation.

- Systemic: Heart to body.

- Pulmonary: Heart to lungs.

- Cardiac: Blood supply to heart tissue.

14. Describe all the steps involved in creating a blood clot.

- Steps:

1. Vessel injury.

2. Platelet plug formation.

3. Fibrin clot formation.

15. Identify the blood types. Which is the universal donor? Which is the universal receiver?

- Types: A, B, AB, O.

- Universal Donor: O-.

- Universal Receiver: AB+.

16. What happens if 2 different blood types are mixed?

- Reaction: Agglutination (clumping) and possible hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells).

17. Outline the immune response to the flu virus. Give the role of each specialized cell: Suppressor T-Cell, Helper T-Cell, B-Cell, macrophage, Memory T-Cell, antibodies, Killer T-Cell.

- Response:

1. Macrophages engulf virus and present antigens.

2. Helper T-Cells activate B-Cells and Killer T-Cells.

3. B-Cells produce antibodies.

4. Killer T-Cells destroy infected cells.

5. Memory T-Cells and B-Cells remain for faster future response.

6. Suppressor T-Cells regulate immune response.

18. Define and describe how a vaccination works.

- Definition: Introduction of antigens to stimulate immune response.

- Mechanism: Generates memory cells for quicker response to actual infection.

#### Excretion, Ch 9

1. What is deamination? Where does deamination occur? Why does deamination occur?

- Definition: Removal of amino group from amino acids.

- Location: Liver.

- Reason: To convert amino acids into usable energy and waste products.

2. Why does ammonia need to be turned into urea?

- Reason: Ammonia is toxic; urea is less toxic and can be safely excreted.

3. What does uric acid get formed from?

- Source: Breakdown of nucleic acids.

4. Draw a diagram and state the function of the following parts of the excretory system: kidney, renal artery, renal vein, ureter, bladder, and urethra.

- (Description due to sketch limitation):

- Kidney: Filters blood.

- Renal Artery: Supplies blood to kidney.

- Renal Vein: Drains filtered blood.

- Ureter: Transports urine to bladder.

- Bladder: Stores urine.

- Urethra: Excretes urine.

5. Why is the nephron important?

- Importance: Functional unit of the kidney; filters blood and

forms urine.

6. State the pathway of blood flow in the nephron, starting from the renal artery and ending in the renal vein.

- Pathway: Renal artery → Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus → Efferent arteriole → Peritubular capillaries → Renal vein.

7. State the pathway of filtrate flow through the nephron.

- Pathway: Bowman's capsule → Proximal tubule → Loop of Henle → Distal tubule → Collecting duct.

8. Define filtration, reabsorption, and secretion in the context of kidney function.

- Filtration: Blood to filtrate in glomerulus.

- Reabsorption: Filtrate to blood (nutrients, water).

- Secretion: Blood to filtrate (wastes).

9. Describe how water balance is maintained in the body.

- Mechanisms: ADH hormone regulates water reabsorption in kidneys.

10. Explain the role of ADH in water balance.

- Role: Increases water reabsorption in kidneys, reduces urine volume.

11. How do kidneys maintain the pH balance of blood?

- Mechanisms: Excrete H⁺ ions, reabsorb bicarbonate.

12. Why is kidney failure serious?

- Reason: Disrupts waste removal, water, electrolyte, and pH balance.

13. What treatments are available for someone who has kidney failure?

- Treatments: Dialysis, kidney transplant.