AP World History: 2.3 - Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Introduction and Context

• The Hadith (9th century) statement, "Seek ye knowledge, even to China," traditionally attributed to the prophet Muhammad, guided Muslims to travel and learn, influencing the expansion of Dar al-Islam.

• Dar al-Islam, meaning the "House of Islam" or Muslim world, is often referred to as the world's first global empire due to its connections across North Africa and South Asia.

• Muslim merchants were instrumental in paving the way for eventual Islamic expansion, traveling to non-Muslim lands for trade centuries before the religion spread widely.

• The interaction of Muslim merchants' connections with advancements in sailing technology and sophisticated environmental knowledge transformed the Indian Ocean into a crucial economic hub during the Postclassical Era.

Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Geographical Position of South Asia

• South Asia, centrally located in the Indian Ocean, greatly benefited from the trade within the Indian Ocean Basin.

Spread of Islam

• While Indian Ocean trade existed as early as 200 \text{ B.C.E.}, the expansion of Islam intensified and connected more cities than ever before.

• Trading partners emerged across East Africa, East and Southeast Asia, and South Asia.

• Muslim Persians and Arabs became the dominant seafarers, vital for transporting goods to various port cities throughout the Indian Ocean.

• West Indian coastal cities, such as Calicut and Cambay, flourished due to interactions with merchants from East Africa and Southwest Asia.

• Calicut, in particular, became a bustling port for merchants seeking spices from southern India. It served as a meeting point for foreign merchants from Arabia and China, facilitating the exchange of goods between West and East.

• Local rulers welcomed Muslim and Chinese merchants, as their presence brought significant wealth and prominence to these cities within the Indian Ocean Basin.

Increased Demand for Specialized Products

• The growth of Indian Ocean trade led to a surge in demand for specialized products, with each region offering unique goods:

  • India: Renowned for high-quality fabrics (especially cotton), meticulously woven carpets, high-carbon steel (used for knives and swords), tanned leather, artisan-crafted stonework, and pepper from southern coastal cities.

  • Modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia (Spice Islands): Exported fragrant nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, and cardamom.

  • Swahili Coastal Cities (Mombasa, Mogadishu, Sofala): Supplied slaves, ivory, and gold.

  • China: Exported silks and highly coveted Chinese porcelain, leading to the term "fine china" for elegant dishes in the West.

  • Southwest Asia: Traded horses, figs, and dates.

Trade in Enslaved People

• The Indian Ocean trade also involved the trade of enslaved people from eastern Africa, transported by land and sea routes.

• These enslaved individuals were sold to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India, with many sent to islands like Madagascar.

• This trade peaked in the 18^{th} and 19^{th} centuries.

• Differences from Atlantic Slave Trade (post-1500):

  • Indian Ocean slaves were more likely to perform forced labor in seaports (shipping industry) and as household servants.

  • Some worked as sailors or soldiers.

  • They often lived in towns or cities, allowing for greater opportunities to develop communities and work alongside free laborers, unlike those in the Americas.

  • Slaves in Islamic communities often had certain rights, such as the right to marry.

• Cultural Impact: The Indian Ocean slave trade led to the transfer of African words, musical styles, and customs to regions such as Oman and India.

Environmental Knowledge (Monsoon Winds)

• Knowledge of the seasonally shifting monsoon winds was crucial for Indian Ocean trade.

  • Winter Months: Winds originated from the northeast.

  • Spring and Summer: Winds blew from the southwest.

• Merchants had to meticulously time their voyages, often requiring them to remain in port cities for several months while awaiting favorable winds.

Advances in Maritime Technology

• Travelers needed ships suitable for navigating the Indian Ocean's winds, leading to technological innovations:

  • Lateen Sails: Arab sailors utilized these triangular sails, which were highly effective at catching winds from various directions. While their invention is debated, their widespread adoption by Arab sailors was significant.

  • Stern Rudder: Invented by Chinese sailors during the classical period, this technology provided ships with enhanced stability and improved maneuverability.

  • Dhows: Small wooden dhows, used by Arab and Indian sailors, dominated the seas during the Postclassical Era.

  • Trade facilitated the rapid spread of these sailing technologies across the lands bordering the Indian Ocean.

  • Astrolabe: Improved by Muslim navigators in the 12^{th} century, this instrument allowed sailors to determine their latitude (how far north or south they were from the equator).

Growth of States

• Indian Ocean trading networks spurred the growth of states that could institutionalize and profit from trade revenue.

• Malacca (Melaka): A Muslim city-state that became wealthy by:

  • Building a navy.

  • Imposing fees on ships passing through the Strait of Malacca, a critical narrow inlet for travel between Indian and Chinese ports.

  • The Sultan of Malacca expanded his state to Sumatra and the southern Malay Peninsula by the 1400 \text{s}.

  • Malacca's prosperity, like other city-states, was founded on trade rather than agriculture, mining, or manufacturing.

• Portuguese Conquest:

  • In 1511, the Portuguese invaded Malacca, aiming to control the lucrative trade flowing between Europe, India, and China through the Strait.

  • They successfully generated significant wealth for their empire but faced challenges.

  • Their conquest instigated conflicts among regional states and prompted traders to diversify their routes and ports, reducing the Portuguese's sole control.

Effects of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Diasporic Communities

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• The expansion of trade necessitated the arrival of merchants in distant lands.

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• Merchants, often waiting for favorable winds, interacted with local cultures and peoples.

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• Formation: Many Arab and East African merchants permanently settled in western Indian port cities, often intermarrying with local women.

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• These merchants from Dar al-Islam were the first to introduce Islam to southern Asia, not through missionary work or conquest, but through intermarriage and the raising of children in Muslim traditions.

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• Definition: Diasporic communities are settlements of people away from their homelands.

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• Cultural Exchange: Settlers introduced their traditions to indigenous cultures, and in turn, were influenced by them. Diasporas emerged globally through trade.

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• Examples of Merchant Communities:
  

  Merchant Community	Region(s)	Products
  Muslim	China, Indian Ocean Basin, Europe	Silk, paper, porcelain, spices, gems, woods, gold, salt, amber, furs
  Chinese	Southeast Asia, Africa	Cotton, tea, silk, metals, opium, salt
  Sogdian (in Samarkand)	Main caravan merchants along Silk Roads, China	Silk, gold, wine, linens
  Jewish	China, India, Europe	Glass beads, linens, dyes, spices
  Malay	Sri Lanka	Nutmeg, pepper, cloves
  Response to Increased Demand

  • Growing demand for products amplified trade, leading to long-lasting impacts:

    • Efficiency: Producers needed to increase efficiency to meet demand (e.g., growing more crops, making more textiles, manufacturing more iron).

    • State Role: The role of the state expanded in some areas to oversee efficiency efforts and generate revenue through customs (taxes on imported goods) and seaport fees.

    • Gujarat Example: The western Indian Rajput kingdom of Gujarat became a key intermediary for trade between East and West. Its customs revenue far exceeded the entire worth of some European states.

  Swahili City-States

  • Indian Ocean trade fostered the development of thriving city-states along the east coast of Africa, known as the Swahili city-states.

  • "Swahili": Literally means "coasters," referring to the inhabitants of bustling commercial centers like Kilwa, Mombasa (modern Kenya), and Zanzibar (modern Tanzania).

  • Trade from Zanj Coast: Traders from this region (known as the Zanj Coast in Arabic) sold ivory, gold, slaves, tortoise shells, peacock feathers, and rhinoceros horns to Arab partners.

  • Imports: In return, the "Zanj" cities acquired Chinese porcelain, Indian cotton, and manufactured ironwork. The vigor of trade with East Asia is evident from the common discovery of Chinese porcelain among Swahili ruins.

  • Wealth and Architecture: Trade brought considerable wealth, leading to significant architectural changes. Traditional mud and clay buildings were replaced with stone and coral structures for mosques and wealthy merchant homes during the trade's height.

  Significant Cultural Transfers

  • Trade intensified the transfer of knowledge, culture, technology, commerce, and religion.

  • Voyages of Zheng He (1371-1433):

    • Initiation: In 1405, Ming emperor Yongle dispatched Muslim admiral Zheng He on the first of seven major voyages.

    • Routes: Zheng He traveled to Indonesia, Ceylon, other Indian Ocean coastal areas, Arabia, the east coast of Africa, and even to the Cape of Good Hope.

    • Purpose: The primary goals were to display the might of the Ming Dynasty to the world and to collect tribute from encountered peoples.

    • Fleet Size: Zheng He's fleet was impressive, comprising over 300 ships carrying 28,000 people at its peak.

    • Outcomes: The expeditions brought prestige to the Chinese government, opened new markets for Chinese goods, and returned with exotic treasures (e.g., the first giraffe seen by the Chinese). They also expanded China's understanding of the world beyond its borders, inspiring some Chinese to immigrate to Southeast Asian ports.

    • Controversy:

      • Confucianism promoted a stable, agrarian lifestyle, causing scholars to worry that increased interaction and trade with foreign cultures threatened China's social order.

      • Some critics saw other cultures as barbaric and inferior to Chinese culture.

      • The voyages were considered too expensive by some.

    • End of Voyages: Emperor Yongle's successor, Zhu Gaozhi, ended Zheng He's travels and discouraged all Chinese from ocean voyaging, even making it a punishable offense to build a ship with more than two masts.

    • Short-term Positive Result: The voyages temporarily suppressed pirate activities off the coast of China and in Southeast Asia. However, piracy resumed, especially in the China Sea, after China ceased sending armed merchant ships into the ocean.

  Key Terms by Theme

  • Government: States

    • Malacca (Melaka)

    • Gujarat

    • Swahili city-states

  • Economy: Trade

    • Calicut

    • Spice Island

  • Environment: Ocean

    • Indian Ocean Basin

    • monsoon winds

  • Technology: Sailing

    • lateen sails

    • stern rudder

    • astrolabe

  • Culture: Disruptions and Transfers

    • Indian Ocean slave trade

    • diaspora

    • Zheng He