HIBE Midterm Study Guide

Microscope:

1. Scanning Electron: a microscope that produces an enlarged, three-dimensional image of an object by using a beam of electrons rather than light

   1. Cannot have live specimen

2. Atomic Force: A device for mapping surface atomic structure by measuring the force acting on the tip of a sharply pointed wire or other object that is moved over the surface; damages specimen & can only be used a few times. 

Vaccines

1. Types

• Virus: uses part of/weakened virus to stimulate host cells

• Protein-Based (recombinant) : uses genetic proteins to help the body recognize proteins on an antigen

• Nucleic acid: uses mRNA/DNA that code for antigen proteins to trigger immune response

  •  Think mRNA Covid Vaccine.

Muscular System Basics:

1. Functions

   1. Locomotion 

   2. Posture maintenance

   3. Stabilize joints

   4. Produce heat when contracted

      1. keeps constant body temp

   5. muscles can:

      1. contract

      2. extend

      3. return to original shape

2. 3 Types of Muscle

   1. Smooth

      1. Found in: 

         1. Digestive tract

         2. Hollow organs, excluding heart

      2. characteristics:

         1. no striations

         2. spindle-shaped cells

         3. SINGLE nucleus

         4. involuntary

   2. Cardiac

      1. Found in: only heart

      2. Characteristics:

         1. striations

         2. SINGLE nucleus

         3. involuntary

         4. cells join to each other at intercalated disc

   3. Skeletal 

      1. Found in: everywhere around bones

      2. Characteristics:

         1. mostly attached to tendons and bones

         2. MULTIPLE nuclei

         3. striated

         4. voluntary

         5. cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue

3. What is each muscle covered with and attached to?

4. What happens when muscles contract?

They get shorter… by the thick filament (myosin) using ATP to pull the thin filaments (actin) closer to each other. The more contracted muscle causes the angle between the joints to lessen. 

The insertion, which is where the muscle end is attached across to the joint, moves toward the origin end of the muscle. Distance between origin and insertion decreases.

5. Relationship between primer movers, antagonists, fixators and  synergist muscles:

Primary Movers (Agonist):

• Large muscles meant to create a large amount of force

Ex: Pecs, Triceps/Biceps, Quads

Antagonist Muscles:

• Muscles which relax to allow another muscle to contract

• Help ensure that the prime movers are not over extending

Ex: When your biceps contract your triceps will be the antagonist and relax.

Fixators:

• A muscle which stabilizes the origin of a prime mover.

  • Allows the agonist (main actor) to function properly

Ex: The deltoid holds the shoulder in place so you can contract at the elbow.

Synergist Muscle:

• Muscles that aides a prime mover and helps prevent rotation

Ex: Brachialist muscle (under the bicep muscles) works with the biceps to flex the elbow.

6. Latin Terms: 

   1. General Muscular Terms

      1. Myo - Muscle 

      2. Mys - Muscle

      3. Sarco - Flesh

   2. Distinguishing Characteristics

      1. Shape: Deltoid - Triangular

      2. Orientation: Rectus - Straight

      3. Relative Size: Maximums - Largest

7. Directional Movements:

   1. Flexion: decreasing the angle between two adjacent body parts

   2. Extension: increasing the angle between two adjacent body parts

   3. Rotation: the bone distal to the joint is moved towards or away from the midline

   4. Abduction: the movement of a body part away from the midline

   5. Adduction: the movement of a body part back toward the midline

   6. Circumduction: a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (windmilling the arms) 

Skeletal System Basics:

1. Functions

   1. Provide support, protection, body movement, blood cell synthesis (hematopoiesis), storage of all inorganic materials (calcium, salt, phosphorus, and magnesium), regulation of homeostasis

2. 2 Divisions: Your axial skeleton is made up of the bones in your head, neck, back and chest. Your appendicular skeleton is made up of everything else — the bones that attach (append) to your axial skeleton.

   1. Axial Skeletal system

      1. Skull, vertebral column, sternum

   2. Appendicular skeleton system

      1. Arms, hands, legs, and feet

3. Joints and Subjoints

   1. 3 main joints

      1. Synarthrotic

         1. Non-moveable joints (sutures)

         2. Sub Joint

            1. Fibrous joints

         3. Ex: Skulls

      2. Amphiarthrotic

         1. Slightly moveable joints

         2. Sub Joint

            1. Cartilaginous joints

         3. Ex: Vertebrae

      3. Diarthrotic

         1. Moveable joints

         2. Sub Joint

            1. Synovial joints 

               1. Ball and Socket, hinge, pivot, and saddle

         3. Ex: Shoulder

4. 3 Categories of (Type 1) Bone Fractures

• greenstick fracture

  • incomplete- break occurs on the convex surface of the bend (broken on the side only)

• fissured fracture

  • incomplete- longitudinal break (like a crack: may not even show up on x-ray if small enough).

• comminuted fracture

  • complete- fragments the bone

    5. 3 Categories of (Type 2) Bone Fractures

• transverse

  • complete- occurs at right angle to axis of bone

• oblique

  • complete- occurs at angle other than right angle

• spiral

  • complete- caused by twisting bone

Scoliosis Lab:

1. Cobbs Angles and Method to Measure it:

   1. Cobb angle is a measurement of the degree of side-to-side spinal curvature, which is a deformity you may know as scoliosis. A Cobb angle describes the maximum distance from straight a scoliotic curve may be. Generally, it takes at least 10 degrees of deviation from straight before scoliosis is defined

   2. Cobb angle measurement are as follows: 

      1. Draw an endplate line between the two intersections of the end vertebra endplate and lateral margins on the film or a straight line drawn between the upper tangent of pedicles’ eyes in the same vertebra. 

      2. Measure the rectangle angle of the upper endplate line to draw the vertical line, and measure the rectangle angle of the lower endplate line to draw the vertical line. 

      3. Measure the included angle between two vertical lines 

2. Spine Anatomy( Vertebrae and Regions)

Below the sacrum is the coccyx

Top vertebrate is the atlas (C1); The second is the axis (C2)

3. Difference between normal and abnormal spine:

   1. Kyphosis

      1. Outward curvature of the spine

         1. Often called hunchback

   2. Lordosis

      1. Inward curvature of the spine

Get a Grip:

1. Human Hand Anatomy

   1. Joints

   2. Tendons

2. What affects grip strength?

Knee Injury:

1. Anatomy of Knee

2. Difference in Anterior and Lateral Views

3. Motions( Flexion, Extension, Varus, Valgus)

4. 4 Principle Ligaments

5. What happens when a ligament is torn?

6. Clinical Tests to Test Injury

Fracture Puzzle:

1. 3 Fracture Patterns

   1. Caused by bending force

Transverse

2. Caused by twisting force

Spiral

3. Caused by impact force

Comminuted

2. Anatomical Directions

   1. Medial→to the middle of the body

      1. Varus→movement towards inside of body

   2. Lateral→outside of the body 

      1. Valgus→movement away from the midline of the body

   3. Distal→far away from the body

   4. Proximal→closer to the body

   5. Anterior →front of the body

   6. Posterior →back

3. Femur Features

4. Proximal Fractures→Broken at top

5. Distal Fractures→Broken at Bottom 

6. Force that causes each type

VOCAB

• Extra-Articular: A fracture that does not extend into the joint 

• Intra-Articular:  A fracture that crosses a joint surface