Brown vs Board of Education: This landmark 1954 Supreme Court case declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). It marked a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement, paving the way for integration and challenging racial segregation in other areas of society.

Plessy vs Ferguson: This 1896 Supreme Court case established the "separate but equal" doctrine, which allowed for racial segregation in public facilities. This doctrine became the legal basis for Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation in the South for decades.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: This landmark legislation outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination, marking a major victory for the Civil Rights Movement.

Malcolm X: A prominent figure in the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X advocated for Black empowerment, self-defense, and Black nationalism. His views and approach differed from Martin Luther King Jr.'s non-violent philosophy, but he remains an influential figure in the fight for racial equality.

MLK JR: A Baptist minister and activist, Martin Luther King Jr. was a central figure in the Civil Rights Movement. He advocated for non-violent resistance to racial injustice and played a key role in events like the Montgomery bus boycott and the March on Washington. His philosophy of peaceful protest and his powerful speeches continue to inspire generations.

Voting Rights Act of 1965: This act aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote. It outlawed discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests and poll taxes, leading to a significant increase in Black voter registration and participation in the South.

Organized Movements: Various organized movements played crucial roles in the Civil Rights Movement:

• Montgomery Improvement Association: Led the Montgomery bus boycott, a successful protest against segregated seating on public buses.

• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC): Led by Martin Luther King Jr., the SCLC advocated for non-violent resistance and organized protests and marches.

• Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC): Organized sit-ins, Freedom Rides, and voter registration drives, playing a key role in challenging segregation and fighting for voting rights.

De facto/de jure segregations:

• De jure segregation refers to segregation imposed by law, as seen in the Jim Crow South.

• De facto segregation refers to segregation that exists through custom and practice, even without legal backing, as seen in housing patterns and educational inequalities in the North.

Black Panthers: Founded in 1966, the Black Panther Party advocated for Black empowerment, self-defense, and community programs. Their militant approach and focus on social issues made them a controversial but influential force in the Black Power movement.

Civil Rights Act of 1968: This act, also known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and later, sex and disability.

Impact of WWII on Civil Rights Movement: World War II had a significant impact on the Civil Rights Movement:

• Job Opportunities: Labor shortages during the war created new job opportunities for African Americans, leading to economic advancement and increased urbanization.

• Military Service: Nearly one million African Americans served in the armed forces, experiencing less discrimination within the military and returning home with a determination to fight for equality.

• Civil Rights Activism: Civil rights organizations actively campaigned during the war, leading to President Roosevelt's directive prohibiting racial discrimination in federal agencies and war industries.

Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Movement achieved significant legal and social changes:

• End of de jure segregation

• Increased access to voting and education

• Greater Black political representation

• Rise in Black pride and cultural awareness

However, the movement also faced ongoing challenges:

• De facto segregation and economic inequality

• Continued racial prejudice and discrimination

• Debate over affirmative action programs

Anti-war movement: The anti-war movement gained momentum during the Vietnam War, with protests and demonstrations against U.S. involvement in the conflict. Students, activists, and everyday citizens opposed the war for various reasons, including the belief that it was a civil war, the high cost in human lives, and the moral implications of the conflict.

War Powers Act: Passed in 1973, the War Powers Act aimed to limit the president's ability to send troops into combat without Congressional approval. It requires the president to inform Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and limits their engagement to 60 days unless Congress authorizes an extension or declares war.

Chapter 30: The Vietnam War Years

ARVN: The Army of the Republic of Vietnam, the South Vietnamese military, fought alongside U.S. forces against the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army.

U.S. goal in Vietnam: The U.S. aimed to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia by supporting South Vietnam against the communist North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. This goal was based on the domino theory, which posited that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow.

Domino theory: This theory, popular during the Cold War, suggested that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall like dominoes. This theory was used to justify U.S. intervention in Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia.

William Westmoreland: The commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam from 1964 to 1968, General Westmoreland advocated for a war of attrition, seeking to wear down the enemy through sustained bombing and high casualty counts. His strategy, however, failed to achieve victory and contributed to growing disillusionment with the war.

Pentagon Papers: Leaked in 1971, the Pentagon Papers revealed that the U.S. government had misled the public about its involvement and intentions in Vietnam. The papers showed that the government had secretly escalated the war while publicly downplaying its scope and objectives.

Military draft: The Selective Service System, or draft, required young men to register for potential military service. During the Vietnam War, the draft became a source of controversy, as many opposed the war and sought ways to avoid service. The inequities of the draft system, with deferments for college students and other groups, led to disproportionate representation of working-class and minority men in combat.

Body count: The U.S. military used body count as a measure of success in Vietnam, focusing on the number of enemy soldiers killed. This approach, however, failed to account for the Viet Cong's ability to replenish their ranks and the overall strategic situation.

Year of 1968: 1968 was a pivotal year in U.S. history:

• Tet Offensive: The surprise attack by the Viet Cong during the Tet holiday challenged the U.S. narrative of progress in the war and turned many Americans against the conflict.

• Assassinations: The assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy caused widespread grief and unrest, highlighting the social and political divisions in the country.

• Democratic National Convention: The chaotic and violent protests at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago further exposed the divisions within the nation and the anti-war sentiment among many Americans.

Election of 1968: Republican Richard Nixon won the 1968 presidential election, capitalizing on the nation's desire for law and order and promising to end the Vietnam War.

Ho Chi Minh Trail: A network of paths and trails used by North Vietnam to supply the Viet Cong in South Vietnam. The Ho Chi Minh Trail ran through neighboring Laos and Cambodia, making it difficult for the U.S. to interdict the flow of supplies and troops.

Freedom Riders: Civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated South to challenge segregation in interstate travel facilities. The Freedom Rides faced violence and arrest but successfully drew attention to the issue and led to the desegregation of interstate travel.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident: A 1964 incident in which North Vietnamese patrol boats allegedly fired on U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. This incident led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted President Johnson broad war powers and escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam.

Viet Cong: The communist guerrilla force in South Vietnam that fought against the South Vietnamese government and U.S. forces. The Viet Cong employed guerrilla tactics, blending into the civilian population and using the terrain to their advantage.

Rosa Parks: An African American civil rights activist who refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a white passenger, sparking the Montgomery bus boycott.

Fannie Lou Hamer: A voting rights activist and leader in the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, Hamer fought against racial discrimination and for Black voting rights.

Tet offensive: A series of surprise attacks by the Viet Cong on cities and towns throughout South Vietnam in 1968. While a military defeat for the Viet Cong, the Tet Offensive demonstrated their resilience and ability to strike anywhere, shaking American confidence in the war effort and turning public opinion against the conflict.

Hawk/Dove: Terms used to describe opposing viewpoints on the Vietnam War.

• Hawks: Supported the war and advocated for increased military action to achieve victory.

• Doves: Opposed the war and called for U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.

Civil Rights Movement: A social and political movement in the United States that aimed to achieve equal rights and end racial discrimination against African Americans.

Effects of the Vietnam War: The Vietnam War had a profound and lasting impact on American society:

• Social and political division: The war deeply divided the nation, with protests and counter-protests highlighting the contrasting views on the conflict.

• Loss of trust in government: The government's deceptions and misleading information about the war eroded public trust in political leaders and institutions.

• Economic challenges: The high cost of the war contributed to inflation and economic problems.

• Psychological impact on veterans: Many veterans suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychological problems as a result of their war experiences.

MLK view on Vietnam War: Initially hesitant to speak out against the war, MLK became increasingly critical of the conflict, highlighting the irony of African Americans fighting for freedom abroad while facing discrimination at home. He also criticized the war's impact on social programs and the disproportionate number of Black casualties.

Agent Orange: A herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in Vietnam to remove foliage that provided cover for the enemy. Agent Orange contained dioxin, a highly toxic chemical that has been linked to cancer and other health problems in Vietnamese civilians and U.S. veterans.

Dem. Nat’l Conv.: The 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago was marked by violent clashes between police and anti-war protesters, further highlighting the divisions within the nation and the anti-war sentiment among many Americans.

Nixon: Richard Nixon, the 37th President of the United States, sought to end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War through his Vietnamization policy, while also escalating bombing campaigns and expanding the war into Cambodia.

Vietnamization: President Nixon's policy of gradually withdrawing U.S. troops from Vietnam while increasing the combat role of the South Vietnamese military.

Credibility Gap: The perceived difference between what the government said about the Vietnam War and the reality on the ground. The credibility gap grew as the war dragged on and the public became increasingly skeptical of the government's claims of progress and victory.

Freedom Summer: A 1964 voter registration drive in Mississippi organized by civil rights groups. Freedom Summer aimed to register Black voters and challenge racial discrimination in the South.

SCLC: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference, led by Martin Luther King Jr., advocated for non-violent resistance to racial injustice and played a key role in organizing protests and marches during the Civil Rights Movement.

SNCC: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee played a pivotal role in the Civil Rights Movement, organizing sit-ins, Freedom Rides, and voter registration drives, particularly in the South.