Global Maritime Expansion before 1450

• Motives for Exploration
  o Land suitable for cultivation of crops & new trade routes to Asia

• 3 Motives for long-distance travel

1. Trade Routes/ Silver & Gold

2. Land & Resources

3 Missionary

2 Networks of Trade

1. Land (lightweight) 2. Ocean/Sea (heavy items)

Global Connections before 1450

• Famous Travelers

• Marco Polo: Born in Venice went to China with his father (17 yrs). Met Khubilai & became very close with him, often traveling as a diplomat.
  On his way home he was captured as a p.o.w, & jailed. There he told his fellow inmates all the stories of where he had been.

In Battuta: Muslim lawyer, educated in Sharia. He traveled to India, Swahili & Mali teaching the strict Muslim laws & how to enforce them. o Zheng He: During the Ming, he traveled in the I/O exerting Chinese

superiority/ influence. (eunuch traveled on junks)

European Expansion 1400-1550

• Motives for Exploration
  Iberian kingdoms: (Portuguese/Spanish) the revival of trade, the
  struggle with Islam for control of the Mediterranean, curiosity about the outside world, & the alliances between rulers & merchants.
  Italian City-States of northern Italy had no incentive to explore
  Atlantic trade routes b/c they had an alliance & trade with Muslims, & their ships were designed for the calm waters of the Mediterranean.

• Ship Technology

• Rudder (turn easily/ made in China)

• Triangular Sail (east to west)

• Magnetic Compass (made in China)

• Astrolabe (navigation)

• Cartography map making + wind patterns

• Carracks & Caravels

• Portuguese Voyages

• Prince Henry "The Navigator" improved the compass & learned about oceanic wind patterns. Exploration produced more financial returns from slaves than from gold.

Treaty of Tordesillas 1494

• Spain & Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing the world down the center of the North Atlantic

Famous Explorers

• Bartolomeo Diaz 1488

The Columbian Exchange

• Demographic Changes

• People of the New World lacked immunity to diseases from the Old

• World. (smallpox, measles, influenza, malaria)
  The spread of these diseases undermined the native's ability to resist settlement, causing more than 50% of deaths.

Transfer of Plants & Animals

Plants from the New World had a significant impact on Europe, Asia, & Africa.

• Animals from the Old World had a significant impact on the Americas.

Encomienda

Spanish Labor System. The settlers had the legal right (Spain) to force the indigenous people to work for them (manual labor) coercive labor system.

• Settlers were granted a certain number of workers & could take them from any tribe. (separating families)

• The natives would provide tribute in the forms of metals, maize, and wheat. In return, natives were taught Spanish, and the Christian faith & were given protection.

• Mining for gold & later sugar plantations, aborigines were resistant to forced labor & organized rebellions. Ultimately they died under harsh working conditions & smallpox which led to the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

Conquest of the Americas

Conquistadores. Spain desired more resources to exploit so they began moving inland.

• Hernan Cortes. Conquered the Aztecs with help from diseases & other residents who resented the Aztec control.

• Francisco Pizarro. Conquered the Incas with help from diseases & unhappy inhabitants.

Control of the Americas

• Vice-Royalties. Administrative jurisdictions to defend their colonies against European rivals. Taxes assessed on colonial products helped pay for this extension of governmental authority.

In 1720, Brazil was appointed a viceroy.

Viceroys were the Portuguese king's representatives in the Americas, their job was to implement Portuguese laws in the Americas.

Audiencias were lawyers who were supposed to check the power of the viceroys.

Belief Systems

Catholic Church was important in spreading language, culture & beliefs to the New World, and converted large numbers of Amerindians, however many secretly held their native beliefs.

• Clergy protected Amerindians from exploitation/abuse.

• Syncretism. Mixing religions

• Santeria. African origin traveled to Cuba

• Vodun. African origin traveled to Haiti

• Candomble. African origin traveled to Brazil Society in Colonial Americas

Society in Colonial Americas

Multicultural. B/c migrants were primarily male, Spanish & Portuguese men had babies with blacks/Indians.

- Mestizos. Mixed offspring

1. Peninsulares. Migrants born in Europe

2. Criollos. Born in America to European parents

3. Mulattos. Europeans & African parents

4. Zambos. Indigenous & African parents

Mining & Agriculture

• Sliver. Found in Mexico & the Andes required slave labor

• Hacienda. Agricultural & craft production on an estate (Mexico)

• Sugar Plantation. Portuguese relied on slaves to work. Since more slaves died working than were born, more slaves were imported to maintain the status quo. (Children were seen as a financial burden)

• Indentured Servants. Poor Europeans migrated but could not afford the cost to travel so they worked to pay the debt.

English Colonies in North America

• Early English Exploration

• Virginia was an English Crown colony in 1607 & developed into a tobacco plantation relying on slaves.

• Governance: Virginia was administered by a Crown-appointed governor & by representatives of towns meeting the House of Burgesses".

Southern Carolinas developed a slave-labor plantation economy producing rice & indigo. Slaves developed their own culture.

In the Carolinas, hunting was brought on by the fur trade.

• New England

• The Pilgrims, who wanted to break completely with the Church of England, established a small Plymouth Colony in 1620.
  The Puritans, who wanted to reform the Church of England, formed a chartered joint-stock company & established the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1630. Because of the location they depended on commerce & shipping across the Atlantic, Boston became the largest city in British North America in 1740

• Dutch Exploration

• Henry Hudson in 1609 explored the East Coast of North America, sailing up the Hudson River.
  Claimed the island of Manhattan called New Amsterdam (NYC) & profited from the location leading to the ocean.

• French America

• Fur Trade: The fur trade provided firearms to the Amerindians which increased violence. The French overhunted furs which made the Amerindians dependent upon European goods.

• French Relations: The French did not settle land which made stronger relations with Indians.

Expansion: The French expanded West & South establishing 2nd fur-trading colony in Louisiana in 1699. B/c of this they went to war

(French & Indian War) with England & were defeated in 1759. France yielded Canada to the English & ceded Louisiana to Spain.

Colonial Expansion & Conflict

• Reform & Reorganization in British North America

• In the late 1700s, the British Crown tried to control colonial trading/manufacturing with a series of Navigation Acts. Colonists resisted by overthrowing the governors of New York & Massachusetts & by removing the Catholic proprietor of Maryland. Thus setting the stage for future confrontational politics.

• In the 1800s economic growth & new immigration into the British colonies were accompanied by increased urbanization & a more stratified social structure.

Oceania

The Dutch traveled to Australia in the 1520s but found no spices, fruits, or mountains for mining so they never ventured further inland.

• Australia's aborigines were nomadic foraging & fishing.

• Captain Cook charted the East side of Australia & found it habitable (Sydney) & the British established it as a penal colony, exiling criminals to work /live there.

African States

West Africa: In the 15th century the Mali Empire fell & the state of Songhai emerged.

Songhai Empire. Focused on administrative & military control, they protected trade. (Muslim) Fell to the Moroccan forces.

Askia Muhammad Songhai's Greatest Mansa (sultan) 1493, also made the hajj to Mecca, and employed bureaucrats educated in madrasa.

East Africa:

Swahili Decline. As the Portuguese became more dominant on the east coast of Africa, they attacked the Swahili ports gaining control of the I/O trade.

West African States & Trade

The Atlantic & Trans-Saharan trade brought West Africa new goods & promoted the rise of powerful states & trading communities. The Moroccan invasion of Songhai & Portuguese colonization of the Angolan ports of Luanda & Benguela showed the political dangers of such relations.

African Kingdoms

Kingdom of Kongo. 14th century, they had a centralized gov, military, judicial & financial organization. They began close relationships with the Portuguese & converted to Catholicism.

King Afonso of Kongo: wanted to end the slave trade with the Portuguese, which resulted in their defeat.

• Angola. Portuguese established a colony where they exchanged textiles and weapons for slaves, copper & gold.

• Luanda was founded by the Portuguese in 1575 & became the center of the slave trade to Brazil. In this eighteenth-century print, the city's warehouses & commercial buildings line the city streets. In the foreground, captives are dragged to the port for shipment to the Western Hemisphere.

Islam & Christianity in Africa

Islam was popular in West Africa (Songhay) & East Africa (Swahili) but Africans blended the inherited religions. Women had more freedom in Islamic Africa vS.

Arabian women.

• Christianity was popular in Portuguese Angola & Kongo where Africans blended their local religions.

Population Growth

• American crops made their way to Africa. Manioc, maize & peanuts lead to population growth by 1/3.
  This happened at the same time Africans were being traded.

• Demographics. Gender imbalances were a result of slavery, leaving more women than men. Men ages 0-10 and 40 & older were undesirable leaving them behind.

Slavery in Africa

Slavery was common in Africa before the Portuguese came.

1) Prisoners of War 2) Criminal 3) Working off Debts

Since Africans did not own land, slaves were a sign of wealth.

Islamic Slave Trade. Because no Muslim could be a slave, Muslims looked to non-Muslim areas to buy slaves (Africa). Most Muslims traded African slaves in the Mediterranean & 1/O (Swahili).

The African Slave Trade

After 1500 a vast new trade in slaves from sub-Saharan Africa to the Americas joined the ongoing slave trade to the Islamic states of North Africa, the Middle East, & India.

The West Indies were the major destination of the Atlantic slave trade, followed by Brazil.

Slavery in Africa

• Portuguese transported slaves to Brazil (Sugar) & Spanish transported slaves to the Caribbean/Mexico.

.

Disease & knowledge of the land helped indigenous people escape from slavery which drove the African slave trade.

• Sailed the Cape of Good Hope, around the bottom of Africa to give Portuguese access to I/O trade.

• Christopher Columbus 1492

• Sailed west (Atlantic) to find a faster way to Asia, but landed in the Caribbean/access to new land.

Vasco De Gama 1497

• Sailed the Cape of Good Hope & reached India

• Ferdinand Magellan 1519

• 1st to circumnavigate the world, but only 18 of his crew returned out of 280 men (it took 3 years)

Portuguese Expansion 1450-1550

• Western Africa
  Africans welcomed the Portuguese & profited from their trade. However, interaction varied from place to place.
  Portugal & the kingdom of Benin established a monopoly on the slave trade but after 1538 it began declining.

• Eastern Africa

• Muslims on the eastern coast were suspicious of the Portuguese, those who welcomed them were spared others were attacked

• Indian Ocean States

• Portugal was determined to control the Indian Ocean trade which they did by controlling the ports. They required all spices to be carried in Portuguese ships & all other ships had to purchase passports & pay customs duties.
  Portugal never completely controlled the Indian Ocean.

Spanish Expansion 1450-1550

• The Americas

• Spanish built a territorial empire in the Americas. Spanish faced less resistance because of diseases.
  Arawak were agricultural people who mined & worked gold (did not trade long distances). Spanish wars killed tens of thousands & those who survived were forced to serve as laborers.
  Hernan Cortes relied on native allies, cavalry charges, steel swords, & cannons to defeat the Aztec Empire & capture the Tenochtitlan.
  Smallpox was introduced to the Aztecs & devastating.
  Francisco Pizarro led the Spanish conquest of Peru. In 1523 Pizarro killed the emperor of the Incas, Atahualpa, & founded the city of Lima.

• Columbian Exchange

• Global exchange of plants, animals, humans, and diseases.

• Diseases

>Small Pox (worst)

• Measles

• Mumps

• Whooping Cough

• Influenza

• Chicken Pox

• Syphilis

Between 1500-1800 more than 100 million people died of disease in the America & Pacific islands. (Children were the most affected)

-Crops

> Maize, potatoes, beans, peppers, tomatoes, peanuts, papayas, guavas, avocados, pineapples, cacao, and tobacco.

-Population Growth. (more food = more people) The global population increased by

25% due to new crops.

-Migration. Transatlantic migration became popular, with the promise of a better life with more opportunities.

• African slaves to the Americas

• Europeans to Americas

• Europeans to Oceania

Animals:

New World to Old World

Llamas

Old World to New World

Horses

Alpacas

Dogs

Turkeys

Guinea Pigs

Cattle sheep Goats

Pigs

Raccoons

Squirrels

Trading Companies

• Britain

• East India Company (1600). A British-owned fleet of ships working for Britain.

• Dutch/Netherlands

• Untied East India Company VOC (1602). The first chartered company monopolized the spice trade, they were the most profitable. Sailed faster, cheaper & had the most powerful ships of that time.

European Conquest

• Philippines

• Manila. A port city conquered by the Spanish. Spanish wanted to spread Christianity & opened schools. (traded silk)

• Indonesia

• Java. Dutch conquered city was the focus of the spice trade. They stole plants from others & killed anyone caught selling spices, creating a monopoly on spices.

(Netherlands became the wealthiest in Europe)

• Northwest passage

• French. Looking for a Northern route to Asia-claimed land in Quebec, Canada. (fur trade) French was not concerned with settling land just trading, and this lead to better relations with Indians.

o England. Also looking for a Northern passage to Asia, settled in Virginia.

• Dutch. Henry Hudson sailed up the Hudson River & settled in New Amsterdam (NYC)

Seven Years War- French Indian War

• Occurred in Europe, India, the Caribbean, and North America involving Asian & indigenous people.

• Britain vs France/Spain: Triggered by the commercial rivalries & political differences.

Resulting in Britain as the dominant world trade power.

The Pacific Ocean

It is believed that people from Asia crossed the water & settled the islands of the

East Indies.

Polynesian migration & establishment of colonies were added by large double-hulled canoes that used paddles & sails. They are navigated by the stars & observations of ocean currents.

Russia

Russia was engaged in land conquest, they gained freedom from the Mongol Khanates, which gave them access to the Ottoman trade.

Baltic Sea. Eventually, they extended into the Baltic Sea and access trade w/ Europe.

Siberia. The cold climate was difficult to conquer, but they had access to fur trade in the Ural Mountains (otter, lynx, arctic fox).

Indigenous people resented Russians & fought against them for about 40 years reducing the population by 70%.

Culture & Ideas

Religious Reformation

• In the 1500s the Catholic Church was benefiting from European prosperity, building new churches. Pope Leo X was raising money by selling indulgences.

• German monk Martin Luther challenged the Pope for selling indulgences, & began the Protestant Reformation. (Lutherans)

• Luther argued that salvation could be earned by faith alone. With help from the Printing Press printed the Bible for all people which led to an increase in literacy.

Religious Reformation

• Calvinists. The Protestant leader John Calvin formed a different position, salivation was God's gift to those who were predestined.

• The Protestant Reformation appealed to Germans who disliked Italian
  Catholic Church & to peasants/urban workers who rejected their masters.

Catholic Reformation

In response to the Protestant Reformation the Catholic Church (Charles V) reforms the church at the Council of Trent. Strict moral standards to teach priests responsibilities. Jesuits were missionary priests sent out to gain more Catholic followers; they were educated in theology, philosophy, literature, history & science & helped a lot of people.

Traditional Thinking & Witch-Hunts

Most people believed that natural events could have supernatural causes.

• In places that had intense conflict with the reformation witch hunts helped deflect tension.

• Witch hunts occurred in the late 16th & early 17th centuries. Over 100,000 (3/4 of women) were tried & half were executed on charges of witchcraft.

Political Innovations

Consolidation of Sovereign States

• Habsburgs. Charles V of Burgundy inherited the position of Holy Roman Emperor & through marriage alliances gained Austria, Spain, & parts of the Americas.

• France & Ottomans were threatened by Charles & attacked. Charles abdicated the throne to his sons:

1. King Phillip gained Spain, Italy, the Americas & the Netherlands

2. King Ferdinand gained the Holy Roman Empire (weak) & Austria

• Spain, Italy & France defended their states against Protestant challenge & remained Catholic.

Two Types of States in Europe

1- Monarchs.
Divine Right of Kings: The king is absolute obey or punished.

England-Tudors, Henry VIll France-Bourbon, Louis Xl/Francis Spain-Habsburg, Charles V & Phillip II

• Economicall. They all found new ways to make $ (Taxes)

• Politically. With $, they expanded gov. administrated jobs, standing armies (not England)

• Spanish Inquisition. Spain killed anyone who was not Catholic Jews,
Muslims) wanting a "pure" state

2- Constitutional States.
England & Dutch (Netherlands)

Monarchies in England

• In England, Henry VIlI challenged papal authority & declared himself head of the Church of England & called it the Anglican Church.

• In England, a conflict between the Parliament & king over taxes led to civil war & the establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy.

• Glorious Revolution. The Monarchy & Parliament had equal power but King James II wanted to enforce Catholicism. In 1688 William & Mary forced James out becoming king/queen. He signed the Bill of Rights that limited the power of the crown.

Monarchies in France

• In France, the Bourbon kings were able to assemble representatives known as Estates General & develop an absolute style government.

• Louis XIV increased revenue through efficient tax collection & controlled the French nobility by requiring them to attend his court at Versailles.

• Versailles. Built by Louis XIV in 1682, it could house 10,000 surrounded by gardens, parks, and pools over 230 acres.

Warfare & Diplomacy

• Due to the constant warfare, modern Europe had a military revolution.

• (cannon, muskets, year around armies) Europeans devised new command structures, signal techniques, & marching drills to help manage the armies.

• Spain's Catholic Armada in 1588. Spain attacked Queen Elizabeth of England for establishing the Protestant Church. England wins

• France rose to power by LAND & England by SEA, multiple tiers of cannon & 4-wheel cannon

carriers

• The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), was triggered by the death of childless Charles II of Spain. England allied with Austria & Prussia to prevent the French from taking over the Spanish throne. French won, Philip V, but some Spanish territories were given to Britain.

• Thirty Year's War. Catholics vs Protestants resulted in the Peace of Westphalia splitting up HRE to choose which religion.

Paying the Piper

The cost of wars resulted in profitable alliances with commercial elites.

• Spain, however, drove out the Jews, Protestants, & the descendants of Muslims. This along with money spent on the Catholic Reformation weakened their economy.

• England used its naval power to break Dutch overseas trade. The English improved tax collecting & created a central bank.

• France streamlined tax collection, used protective tariffs to promote domestic industries & improved transportation networks. But we’re not able to introduce direct tax collection, tax the land of nobles, or secure low-cost loans.

Social & Economic Life

Commercial revolution.

Accumulation of Capital shifted from entrepreneurs to laborers increasing consumerism.

The Commercial Revolution began with the Crusades created a money economy Mercantilism & lasted until the Industrial Revolution.

• Joint Stock Companies investors bought stock, giving companies money and thus sharing profits/loss. & stock exchange developed & improved Europe's transportation.

Capitalism. Private ownership

• European cities grew, wealthy urban bourgeoisie thrived on manufacturing, finance, & trade. (Amsterdam)

The bourgeoisie gentry gradually increased ownership of land & helped enter into nobility & later forged relationships with monarchs & investors.

Joint Stock Companies:

British East India Company

• Dutch East India Company- VOC (fastest)

Spain & Portugal were state-run

Peasants & Laborers

• Because of African slaves working in the Americas, Europe's living conditions declined (less work). But those New World crops helped peasants avoid starvation.

• Wood was consumed in high amounts, and construction and ship building led to deforestation in Europe. Wood prices increased & led to the use of coal.

• The urban poor consisted of "deserving poor" (permanent residents) & large numbers of "unworthy poor" (migrants, beggars, criminals).

Women & the Family

• Women's status & work were tied to their families. Common people married late in Europe b/c young men served long apprenticeships & women worked to earn their dowries.

• The bourgeoisie women class married late too, and men waited to finish their education. This helped low birth rates.

• Bourgeoisie parents put great emphasis on education & promoted the establishment of schools. (women were banned)

Culture & Ideas

The Scientific Revolution

• Copernicus introduced the "heliocentric" model, which outraged the Catholic Church.

• Galileo improved the telescope & helped prove the heliocentric model.

• Isaac Newton discovered the law of gravity & showed why planets move around the sun & also led to the development of physics.

The Early Enlightenment

• The scientific revolution led to people questioning everything. This intellectual movement assumed that social behavior/institutions were governed by scientific laws, called Enlightenment.

• Scientific Methods began changing society & the printing press helped disseminate new ideas.

Russia

Ivan the Terrible 1533-1584

• Grandson of Ivan The Great crowned at 16, declaring himself Tsar.

• Military. Reformed the army using muskets, giving rise to peasant warriors called Cossacks.

• Grand Council. Held meetings with Boyars & centralized laws but introduced Serfdom. Confiscated the Boyar's lands & forced them to live in Moscow.

Purge.

• Oprichnik. Secret police are hired by Ivan to kill his enemies.

• Eliminated laws

• He beat his daughter in law which caused a miscarriage & accidentally killed his son

• Peter the Great Romanov tsar traveled to Europe & brought back new reforms that helped Russia.

• Education among Nobles

• Professional armies (trained) & navy

• No beards

• Constructed St. Petersburg (modeled after Amsterdam)

• Catherine the Great. Promoted economic development & better treatment of peasants/serfs

• Serfdom remained until the 19th century. Landowners prevented their peasants from leaving their land. Serfs made it possible for capitalism to flourish b/c they provided cheap food & raw materials for the West.

Triangular Trade

1. Europe -> Africa. Firearms/Cannons/Textiles/Medicine

2. Africa -> Americas. Men ages 15-35

3. Americas -> Europe. Sugar/Tobacco/Cotton/Rum/Silver

The Atlantic Economy

• By 1700 the volume of maritime exchanges among the Atlantic continents had begun to rival the trade of the Indian Ocean Basin. Notice the trade in consumer products, slave labor, precious metals, and other goods. Silver trade to East Asia laid the basis for a Pacific Ocean economy.

Slavery in Africa

• Capturing Slaves. Slaves were captured by other Africans in raids on communities (not POWs anymore). Slaves were traded for firearms.

• Gender & Age. 2/3 of the slaves were men ages 14-35. There was no desire to promote slaves to having babies, it took too long & too expensive to rise.

12 million Africans were forced into the Americas & 4 million of them died in the process

• Middle Passage. Transporting slaves from Africa to the Americas, was the most brutal part of the slave trade. Ships were filthy & over crowded, there was no room to sit up with shelves stacked on top of another. There were no restrooms & the smell was awful. Sick people were thrown overboard. Women were raped by the crew. The journey took 4 to 6 weeks. Morality rates were much higher at the beginning of the slave trade but then improved.

Plantation Societies

• Cash Crops.

1. Sugar Crops: were the most profitable by far but also required the most manual labor.

2. Tobacco: became more profitable not long after 17th century.

3. Rice/Cotton/Coffee: were also lucrative.

• All Plantations had gardens to feed worker, they relied on slave labor, they were predominately Africans with small amount of Europeans.

• Caribbean Sugar Mill. The windmill crushes sugar cane, whose juice is boiled down in the smoking building next door.

• Antigua, British West Indies. The sugar made at the mill in the background was sealed in barrels & loaded on carts the oxen & horses drew to the beach. By means of a succession of vessels the barrels were taken to the ship that hauled the cargo to Europe. The importance of African labor is evident from the fact that only white person appears in the painting

• Maroons. Were run away slaves. Many formed communities on the outskirts & maintain their own communities.

• Slave Revolts. Africans outnumbered slave owners & revolts were feared by the slave owners. But there were never any successful slave revolt b/c owners had guns, horses & Learned Helplessness.

• Haitian Slave Revolt. Was the only successful slave revolt & gained their independence from France.

Sugar & Slaves

• Most colonies made the transition from tobacco to a sugar economy. This caused an increase in the volume of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1750s.
The shift from indentured servants to enslaved Africans were caused by:

1. Decline in willingness

2. Life expectancy of a slave was longer than a typical contract

• A rise in profit to invest in slaves.

African American Cultural Traditions

Language. Creole was a blend of African native tongue & European language.

• Religion. Most Africans were Christians before they were enslaved but it was a blend of African traditions.

• Rituals. Like drumming, dancing, & animal sacrifice (Santeria in Cuba)
  (Candomble in Brazil) (Vodou in Haiti)

• Music. Brought a scene of home to slaves. It helped shape community identity & resistance to oppression (Blues, Jazz, Gospel, hip hop, Samba, Reggae) Banjo

• Food. Okra & Gumbo are African words

Slaves' Lives

• West Indian society consisted of wealthy plantation owners & slaves.

• Punishment. Slaves were rewarded for good work & punished harshly for failure to meet their production quotas or for any form of resistance. (Whipping, shame, hunger & thirst)

• Sundays. were the only days slaves could cultivate their own crops, they had little rest, no education & little time for family life.

• Life Span. Disease, harsh working conditions, & dangerous mill machinery contributed to a short life of slaves.

Abolition of Slavery

The Enlightenment, American & French Revolutions inspired the abolition of slavery

1807.

• The cost of slavery became too high & not as profitable, so Europeans turned to industrial manufacturing instead.

Slavery still happens today under:

Debt bondage

Contract labor

Order of Abolition:

Britain (1807)

USA

Sham adoptions

Servile marriages

Spain

Portugal (LAST 1888)

Africa's European & Islamic Contracts

• European colonies were established on islands off the coast of Africa:
Portuguese: Angola

Dutch: Cape Colony

Muslim dominated the Ottoman Empire (N. Africa).

• Morocco attacked sub-Saharan (Songhai) Muslim kingdom causing a shift of trade from western Sudan to central Sudan.
The majority of slaves across the Sahara were women & children

Ming Dynasty

• After driving out the Mongols, Ming established a centralized gov & traditional Chinese state.
  Mandarins: bureaucrats scholars (civil service)
  Eunuchs: imperial servants

• Built the Forbidden City in Beijing

o Limited trade with foreigners to the outskirts to prevent influence

(Canton/Hong Kong)

o Worked on the extension of the Great Wall

• Collected "hard currency" taxes aka Silver

• Brought back Foot binding

o Portuquese: Christian missionaries reached China part of the Counter

Reformation. Jesuits were sent to recruit more followers.

-The Jesuit Matteo Ricci used his knowledge of the Chinese language to gain access to the imperial court. Ultimately was unsuccessful.

Decline:

o Pirates in the SE coast

o Inflation due to the silver from the New World

Environmental strain caused famine (caused revolts)

Manchus were invading

Qing Dynasty (Manchus) 1644-1912

Like the Mongols, the Manchus forbid intermarriage & learning their language but they did learn the Chinese language & studied Confucian.

Chinese men were forced to shave the front of their hair & grow a queue.

• Mandarins ran the day to day governing of the empire, they studied
Confucian & passed the Civil Service Exam

o Civil Service Exam: Only 300 men could pass each time it was

administered, the test took 3 days 2 nights to complete with no interruptions.

Those who passed were not guaranteed a job, they still had to compete for gov positions.

• Gained territory in Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan & Tibet.

o Manchu emperors were "Sons of Heaven" (aka Mandate of Heaven). By

using this title, Chinese respected the takeover but bc Manchus continued to separate their identity it was seen as contradictory.

o Filial Piety was part of society, respect of the Emperor. (Hierarchal,

Patriarchal, Authoritarian). Children had to look after their parents. Veneration of ancestors along the male line.

Expansion

o The Qing Empire began in Manchuria & captured North China in 1644.

Between 1644 & 1783 the Qing conquered all the former Ming territories & added Taiwan, the lower Amur River basin, Inner Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, & Tibet. The resulting state was more than twice the size of the Ming Empire.

Gender Relations.

o Boys were preferred b/c they could take civil service exams to increase

family's positions. Girls were seen as a burden, families spent money in their upbringing & then they would become members of other families when married (husband's mother was superior).

o This led to infanticide of baby girls & widowers were encouraged to commit

suicide.

o Foot binding (began in the Song) continued during the Qing. Women were

not allowed to divorce but men could put their wives aside.

Population Growth

American Crops helped China's previously unsuitable farming land fit for farming with new crops. Maize, Potatoes, Peanuts lead to population growth.

• Population growth surged with 40% increase, which caused economic & social problems.

Economic Development

o China manufactured silk, porcelain, lacquer ware & tea but did not want any items except for silver bullion. This lead to increase demand in the Americas

Technology

• Slowed down during the Ming & Qing bc they favored hiring more workers (population growth) than invent.

Privileged Classes

• Scholar- Bureaucrats and Gentry. They wore different clothes & did not have to pay taxes, they owned land.

Working Classes

1. Peasants (honorable work)

2. Artisans (more money)

3. Merchants (social parasites)

4. Military Forces, Slaves, Indentured Servants, Prostitutes Canton: Qing limited trade with Europeans to Canton

o Dutch East India Company became the major trader w/China. o Britain o Portuguese

Emperor Kangxi

• Kangxi took control in 1661 (16 yrs old) longest reigning emperor in
Chinese History 61 years.

O

He was an intellectual prodigy & successful military commander who expanded his territory & gave it a high degree of stability.

O

They incorporated ideas & technology from Mongolian, Tibetan, Korean.

They also adapted European mapmaking, astronomy, & anatomical, pharmaceutical knowledge (Jesuits)

Emperor Qianlong

• Qianlong also ruled for 61 years, grandson of Kangxi.

• During his reign bureaucrats became corrupt, asking for higher taxes which caused the White Lotus Rebellion, killing 100,000 peasants

Japan

o Warfare among the daimyo was common, the most powerful warlords,

Hideyoshi, lead an invasion of Korea in 1592.

O

After his death in 1598, Japanese withdrew & made peace w/ Korea in 1606.

O

Japanese leader (Tokugawa) brought civil wars to an end & established a more centralized government.

O A new shogun, Tokugawa leyasu, brought local lords under his

administration.

Alternative Attendance

• A way to control the Daimyo, Tokugawa required them to stay every other year in the court. This helped keep an eye on the Daimyo & caused them to spend money on lavish residences rather than military endeavors.

Social Changes

o Tokugawa wanted to reduce warriors of the Daimyo, so they persuaded them to become bureaucrats.

• Floating Worlds. Centers of urban entertainment. (tea houses, theaters, brothels & public baths)

Foreign Relations

• Jesuits came to Japan in the late 1500s, they had limited success in converting lords but were successful in converting farmers. Rural rebellions were blamed on Christians.

O

Tokugawa responded w/ a ban on Christianity, & in 1649, the closing of the country. The closed country policy was intended to prevent the spread of foreign influence, but not to exclude knowledge of foreign cultures.

o Dutch were allowed to reside on a small island near Nagasaki.

O

Japanese were interested in the European knowledge that could be gained

from European books developed a field known as "Dutch

Studies"

o Japan was not considered an empire bc it never expanded new territory.

The Russian Empire

o As Russia expanded east they incorporated diverse groups of people which

resulted in fighting. (fur trade)

o Romanov came to power & gained access to the Baltic. They also moved the

Orthodox church to Moscow.

• Peter Romanov westernized Russia building St. Petersburg. But they oppressed peasant to serfdom.

Catherine Romanov helped improve serf life.

o Peter the Great: Portrait from his time as a student in Holland in 1697.

• The Fontanka Canal: The Russian capital continued to grow as a commercial and administrative center, As in Amsterdam, canals were the city's major arteries.

Rise of the Gunpowder Empires

The Timurid Empire, built by Tamerlane, was the last Mongol Khanate.

Tamerlane's military tactics & use of gunpowder set the foundation for the Gunpowder Empires to follow.

• Used gunpowder weapons; artillery & cannons

• Ghazi Ideals: blend of nomadic warriors serving Islam

• Government was dependent on military

Islamic Empires

1. Ottoman Empire (Anatolia) 1453-1922

2. Safavid Empire (Persia) 1502-1736

3. Mughal Empire (India) 1526-1857

Ottoman Empire

Mehmed II controlled Anatolia then conquered the Byzantine Empire in 1453 by use of cannons.

-Renaming Byzantium, Istanbul as their capital & Sunni Islam as the religion.

>Converted Aya Soya to a Mosque building Minarets

-Encouraged the exiled Muslims & Jews from Spain to relocate to Istanbul.

>Taxed non-Muslims the jizya

-Expanded territory in the Black Sea, Balkans & Adriatic Sea.

>Rivaling & partnering with the Venetians.

Central Ottoman Institutions

Ghazi. Muslim religious warriors who fought on mounted horses with muskets & cannons. The Ghazi were only loyal to their clan leader. (The Sultan wanted to hire soldiers loval to him)

Devshirme. The process of capturing Christian boys (10-20 yrs old), converting them to Islam & training them to be fierce warriors.

Janissaries. "New Troops" were the devshirme who became men/warriors loyal to the Sultan, fought on foot & armed with guns.

Reaya. The common people (Christians, Jews, nonfighting Muslims).

Sultan supplied justice & defense for the Reaya. The Reaya supported the sultan through taxes & were ruled by local nobles/religious leaders.

Suleiman the Magnificent

Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ruled at the height of the Ottoman

Empire 1520-1566.

1. Conquered North Africa & pushed to Vienna, Austria.

2. Ottomans forced the Venetians to pay tribute & helped Muslim merchants against the Portuguese.

3. Land forces were more powerful than sea.

> The Turkish cavalrymen were paid in land grants timar, while

Janissaries were paid

from the central treasury.

Economic Change Growing Weakness 1650-1800s

New World Silver brought inflation & financial deterioration. Rebellions caused Janissaries to decline.

Significant changes in the Ottoman institutions:

1. The Sultan lived a secluded life in the palace, where harem politics ruined heirs to the throne.

2. The government affairs were handled by chief administrators' viziers not Sultan as Europeans gained strength

1. The devshirme was discontinued

2. Janissaries became a political hereditary elite group no longer warrior

Safavid Empire 1502-1736

Shah Ismail. Young boy (14) took control of the Iranian plateau & changed the religion to a blend of Sufism & Shi'a Islam. He was related to Safi-Al-Din, thus naming his empire the Safavids (Shiites)

Twelver Shiism. Believed that there were 12 Imams (leaders/relatives) after Muhammad & the 12th one escape persecution. Ismail was his descendent.

They wore red turbans wore 12 pleats.

The Safavid Empire 1588-1629

Shah Abbas I. Ruled at the height of the empire

• Use Slave Corp of Christian boy warriors called Ghulams as Blood Tax

• Received help & weapons from Europe

• Kept Silk Road safe

• Built capital Isfahan

• Conflicts with Ottomans & Mughals

Economic Crisis & Political Collapse

Like Ottomans, Safavids were plagued by the expense of firearms until Shah

Abbas established a

slave corps of professional soldiers armed w/ gun. But due to inflation the Safavid State had

difficulty paying its army. An Afghan army took advantage of this weakness to capture Isfahan & ended Safavid rule in 1722

A Tale of Two Cities

Ottoman Empire. Istanbul was a busy port city, a walled palace w. domes & soaring minaret

Safavid Empire. Isfahan was an inland city, open palace w/ a huge plaza for polo games.

Both cities were built for walking (not wheeled vehicles), women were seldom seen in public.

The Mughal Empire 1526-1761

The Mughal Empire was established & consolidated by a Turkic warrior

Babur, descendent of Tamerlane in Northern India.

Akbar, his grandson, ruled at the height of the Empire, he was only 13.

1. Religiously tolerant (Muslim & Hindu) he married a Hindu princess

2. Imposed "Divine Faith" giving him total power

3. He established a central administration & land revenue to his military officers/officials called zamindars, as they collected taxes.

4. 1/O trade brought extensive wealth to India

Taj Mahal

Shah Jahan built this palace for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Unfortunately, she died giving birth to their child. The Palace then became a mausoleum for his beloved. It took 22 years to complete.

The decline of the Mughal Empire:

1. Aurangzeb ruled the Mughal Empire at it's fall, he did not agree with religious tolerance forcing Islam w/ destruction

2. Failure to completely integrate newly conquered territory

3. Rebellions gave rise to regional powers

4. After the Mughals lost power, regional officials established their own independent states.

This left India fractured giving Britain & France more control.

Islamic Society Commonalities

Taxes: All were created by military emperors that owned all land & taxed

people to pay for

military/administrative costs.

Women: Mothers, first wives & favorite concubines were revered. However, women were all repressed.

Agriculture: Was the main economy. New crops from the Columbian

Exchange were introduced

(tobacco/coffee)

Population Growth: Increased due to intensive farming of traditional crops

(not CE)

Trade: They all traded textiles from China to Europe & with trading

companies.

Religion. All promoted their faith (Islam) & helped spread wither by force or choice. They were all diverse Islam

Ottoman: Sunni, Christians, Jews

Safavids: Shites, Sufism, Zoroastrianism, Christian, Jews Mughal: Islam, Hindu, Sufism

They all allowed conquered people to keep their faiths but had to pay a tax, lizva or Slave Soldiers

Famous Buildings

Ottomans: Suleymaniye (Hagia Sofia)

Safavids: Isfahan Palace

Mughal: Taj Mahal

Fall

They all has issues within the families, either overthrow or suspicions

of overthrowing the emperor.

Religious conflicts within their empire.

Economics Issues. When the empires expanded, they continued to gain economic success but

when the empires stopped or loss land, they saw economic hardship.

Funding the military & administrative costs became too much.

Ottoman spent $ fighting Safavids/Janissaries

Safavids spent $ fighting Ottomans/Mughals

Mughals spent $ fighting Hindus/Safavids

They relied on foreign trade to gain revenue

Culturally. Muslims did not want to learn about foreign countries. They thought they were

superior. Their religion & extremism did not allow them to enjoy new technologies.