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ap psych review

Developmental Psychology<ul><li>Ainsworth’s attachment and strange situation experiment </li><li>Piaget’s stages of development</li><li>Baumrind’’s parental types</li><li>Primary and secondary sex characteristics</li><li>Kohlberg’s morality development</li><li>Erikson’s stages of development</li><li>Harlow’s monkeys</li><li>The development of gender roles</li><li>Changes in the focus of developmental psychology</li><li>Self-concept</li><li>Social identity</li></ul>Social<ul><li>Obedience</li><li>Halo effect</li><li>Social facilitation</li><li>Mere-exposure effect</li><li>Superordinate goals</li><li>In-group bias</li><li>Self-fulfilling prophecy</li><li>Attraction</li><li>Lucifer effect</li><li>Bystander effect</li><li>Conformity</li><li>Social loafing</li><li>Normative social influence</li><li>Cognitive dissonance</li><li>Individualistic vs. collective cultures</li><li>Out-group bias</li><li>Fundamental Attribution Error</li><li>Scapegoat theory</li></ul>/Motivation, Emotion, & Personality<ul><li>The theories of emotion</li><li>Freud’s defense mechanisms</li><li>Theories of personality</li><li>Maslow’s hierarchy of needs</li><li>Big Five Factor traits</li><li>Freud’s views on disorder</li><li>Carol Rogers’ views on humanistic psychology</li><li>Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation</li><li>Neurotransmitters involved with motivation</li><li>General Adaptation Syndrome</li><li>Arousal theory</li><li>The effects of meditation

Motivation, Emotion, & Personality

### Theories of Emotion Theories of emotion aim to understand how emotions arise, their components, and their impact on behavior. Key theories include the James-Lange Theory, which posits that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience; the Cannon-Bard Theory, suggesting that emotional responses occur simultaneously with physiological reactions; and Schachter-Singer Theory, which emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in interpreting physiological changes to experience emotion.

Freud’s Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud proposed mechanisms by which individuals deal with anxiety and stress, often unconsciously. Key defense mechanisms include repression (pushing unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious), denial (refusing to accept reality), projection (attributing one's own unacceptable qualities to others), and rationalization (justifying behaviors by providing reasonable-sounding explanations).

Theories of Personality

Various theories exist to explain personality development, including:

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud): Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
Humanistic Theory (Rogers and Maslow): Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, stressing that individuals have inherent worth.
Trait Theory: Suggests that personality traits are stable characteristics that influence behavior across various situations, assessed through measures like the Big Five personality traits.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed a pyramid of human needs, ranging from basic physiological needs (food, water, shelter) at the base to self-actualization (realizing potential) at the top. The hierarchy suggests that lower-level needs must be satisfied before individuals can focus on higher-level psychological and self-fulfillment needs.

Big Five Factor Traits

The Big Five model outlines five broad dimensions of personality:

Openness: Creativity and willingness to try new things.
Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, and work ethic.
Extraversion: Sociability and positive emotionality.
Agreeableness: Compassion and cooperativeness.
Neuroticism: Tendency towards emotional instability and negative emotions.

Freud’s Views on Disorder

Freud viewed psychological disorders as manifestations of inner conflicts, often stemming from repressed memories and desires. He emphasized the importance of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in the development of mental health issues.

Carol Rogers’ Views on Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers, a key figure in humanistic psychology, emphasized the importance of an individual's subjective experience. He introduced concepts such as unconditional positive regard, believing that a nurturing environment is crucial for self-actualization and personal growth.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation can be intrinsic (driven by internal rewards, like personal satisfaction) or extrinsic (influenced by external rewards, such as recognition or money). Understanding these forms of motivation helps in fields such as education and work performance.

### Neurotransmitters Involved with Motivation Several neurotransmitters play crucial roles in motivation, including:

Dopamine: Associated with reward and pleasure, influencing the motivation to engage in particular behaviors.
Serotonin: Impacts mood and emotional regulation, affecting overall motivation levels.
Norepinephrine: Related to arousal and alertness, playing a role in the motivation to act in response to challenges.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describes the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress, divided into three stages: alarm (initial response), resistance (adaptation to stressor), and exhaustion (depletion of resources leading to potential health issues).

Arousal Theory

Arousal Theory posits that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies from person to person. This theory explains why people engage in behaviors that increase or decrease arousal, such as seeking thrill or relaxation.

The Effects of Meditation

Meditation has been shown to have significant effects on mental health and emotional regulation, including reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. It can enhance self-awareness, improve focus, and promote overall psychological well-being, evidenced by changes in brain structure and function associated with regular practice.</li></ul>Clinical <ul><li>Symptoms and cause of chronic and acute schizophrenia</li><li>SSRIs</li><li>Antipsychotic drugs</li><li>Illness anxiety disorder (Hypochondriasis)</li><li>Phobias</li><li>Conversion and somatic symptom disorders</li><li>Side effects of antipsychotics</li><li>Types of therapy</li><li>Antisocial personality disorder</li><li>Narcissistic personality disorder</li><li>Depression</li><li>Client-centered therapy</li><li>Rumination</li><li>Avoidant personality disorder

Clinical Psychology

### Symptoms and Causes of Chronic and Acute Schizophrenia

Chronic Schizophrenia: Characterized by long-term symptoms including hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and impaired functioning. Symptoms can be persistent and may evolve over time.
Acute Schizophrenia: Often presents suddenly, featuring more intense symptoms that may be triggered by stress or trauma. It might include a brief psychotic episode, which can lead to a complete recovery or progression to chronic schizophrenia.
Causes: The etiology of schizophrenia is complex and multifactorial, involving genetic predisposition, neurochemical imbalances (especially dopamine), brain abnormalities, and environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to infections or psycho-social stressors.

SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)

SSRIs are commonly prescribed antidepressants that increase the levels of serotonin in the brain by inhibiting its reuptake in the synaptic cleft. They are effective in treating major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and certain personality disorders. Common SSRIs include fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), and escitalopram (Lexapro).

Antipsychotic Drugs

Antipsychotics are used to manage symptoms of psychosis including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. They primarily work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain. There are two main types:
- Typical Antipsychotics (e.g., haloperidol, chlorpromazine) mainly target dopamine D2 receptors.
- Atypical Antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine) affect both dopamine and serotonin receptors, often leading to a broader range of treatment efficacy and fewer side effects.

Illness Anxiety Disorder (Hypochondriasis)

This disorder refers to the preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness. Individuals typically misinterpret bodily sensations or minor symptoms as indicative of severe diseases. Treatment options often involve cognitive-behavioral therapy and, in some cases, medications such as SSRIs.

Phobias

Phobias are intense, irrational fears of specific objects, situations, or activities that lead to avoidance behavior. There are two primary categories:
- Specific Phobias: Focused on particular things like heights, spiders, or flying.
- Social Anxiety Disorder: Involves fear of social situations and potential judgment from others. Treatments often include exposure therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

Conversion Disorder: Characterized by neurological symptoms (such as paralysis or tremors) that cannot be explained by medical findings. Symptoms are often triggered by stress or trauma.
Somatic Symptom Disorder: Involves an intense focus on physical symptoms (pain or fatigue) that causes significant distress or impairment. Those suffering often feel that their health is poor despite medical evaluations showing no underlying condition.

Side Effects of Antipsychotics

Common side effects include weight gain, diabetes risk, sedation, and extrapyramidal symptoms (such as tremors and rigidity). Atypical antipsychotics have a favorable side effect profile compared to typical ones but can still lead to metabolic syndrome issues.

Types of Therapy

Therapy modalities vary widely, including:
- Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Effective for anxiety and depressive disorders, focusing on changing negative thought patterns.
- Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): Particularly effective for borderline personality disorder, it integrates mindfulness and behavioral techniques. - Exposure Therapy: Used primarily for phobias and PTSD, this involves gradual exposure to feared stimuli in a controlled manner.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. Individuals often display deceitfulness, impulsivity, irritability, and lack of remorse for actions. Treatment is challenging and may focus on managing symptoms rather than cure.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Individuals exhibit grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. These traits can affect interpersonal relationships and lead to conflicts. Therapeutic approaches may include psychodynamic therapy and cognitive-behavioral strategies aimed at increasing awareness and empathy.

Depression

Characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities. Major depressive disorder can be episodic and affect daily functioning. Treatment typically involves psychotherapy, medications (like SSRIs), and lifestyle changes.

Client-Centered Therapy

Developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic approach emphasizes creating a supportive environment where clients can explore their feelings and thoughts. Key principles include unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuine relationship between therapist and client.

Rumination

The process of continuously thinking about the same thoughts, which are often sad or dark. It can exacerbate depression and anxiety disorders, and therapy may focus on developing skills to redirect thoughts and foster adaptive coping mechanisms.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Involves a pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation. Individuals may want social connection but fear rejection, leading to avoidance of social interactions. Treatments can include CBT, support groups, and sometimes medications to alleviate anxiety symptoms.</li></ul><h4 collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Developmental Psychology</h4>Ainsworth’s Attachment and Strange Situation Experiment: Ainsworth classified attachment styles into secure, avoidant, and anxious-resistant attachments based on her Strange Situation experiment, which observed how infants reacted to separation and reunion with their caregivers. Securely attached infants showed distress when separated but were quickly comforted upon reunion. Avoidant infants were indifferent to separation and avoided their caregivers upon return, while anxious-resistant infants displayed intense distress and ambivalence upon reunion.Piaget’s Stages of Development: Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four stages: Sensory-Motor (0-2 years), where infants learn through sensory experiences; Preoperational (2-7 years), characterized by symbolic play but lacking logical reasoning; Concrete Operational (7-11 years), where logical thought begins in concrete situations; and Formal Operational (12 years and up), marked by the ability to think abstractly and systematically.Baumrind’s Parental Types: Diana Baumrind identified three primary parenting styles: authoritative (high responsiveness and high demands), authoritarian (low responsiveness and high demands), and permissive (high responsiveness and low demands). Each style influences children's behavior and social competence differently.Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics: Primary sex characteristics are directly related to reproduction, including internal organs (ovaries and testes) and external genitalia. Secondary sex characteristics, like breast development in females and facial hair in males, emerge during puberty and are not directly involved in reproduction.Kohlberg’s Morality Development: Lawrence Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral reasoning develops in stages: preconventional (obedience and punishment orientation), conventional (social norms), and postconventional (abstract principles). Each stage represents a different level of moral complexity.Erikson’s Stages of Development: Erik Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that serves as a turning point in development, such as Trust vs. Mistrust during infancy and Integrity vs. Despair during late adulthood.Harlow’s Monkeys: Harry Harlow's experiments with rhesus monkeys demonstrated the importance of caregiving and companionship in social and cognitive development, showing that infant monkeys preferred the comfort of a soft surrogate mother over the one providing food, highlighting the need for emotional security.The Development of Gender Roles: Gender roles are societal norms dictating the appropriate behaviors for individuals based on their gender, influenced by cultural, social, and biological factors, and can evolve over a person's life span, reflecting changes in societal expectations and individual experiences.Changes in the Focus of Developmental Psychology: Over time, the focus has shifted from a primarily child-centered understanding of development to a lifespan perspective, recognizing that development occurs across all stages of life and is influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors.Self-Concept: Self-concept refers to the beliefs and perceptions one holds about themselves, influencing behavior and interactions. It develops through social experiences and feedback from others.Social Identity: Social identity is derived from group memberships, influencing self-esteem and behavior. It focuses on how individuals categorize themselves and others, and how those categorizations affect interactions and perceptions.<h4 collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Social</h4>Obedience: The tendency to follow orders from an authority figure, as exemplified by Milgram's experiment on compliance.Halo Effect: A cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait leads to the perception of other positive traits in the same individual.Social Facilitation: The tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others compared to when alone.Mere-Exposure Effect: A psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.Superordinate Goals: Goals that require cooperation between multiple groups, often reducing intergroup conflict and fostering unity.In-group Bias: The tendency to favor one's own group over others, often leading to discrimination against out-groups.Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that causes itself to become true due to the behavior it generates, often seen in social contexts.Attraction: Factors that lead to interpersonal attraction include physical appearance, proximity, similarity, and reciprocity of liking.Lucifer Effect: The concept that situational and systemic forces can transform ordinary individuals into perpetrators of evil behaviors.Bystander Effect: A social psychological phenomenon wherein individuals are less likely to offer help in emergencies when others are present.Conformity: The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, more likely in ambiguous situations.Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively in a group than when working alone.Normative Social Influence: Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval from others.Cognitive Dissonance: The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs or values, prompting a change in beliefs or behaviors to reduce discomfort.Individualistic vs. Collective Cultures: Individualistic cultures emphasize personal goals and self-reliance, while collective cultures value group goals and relationships.Out-group Bias: The tendency to view out-group members as homogenous and less favorable than in-group members.Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate dispositional influences and underestimate situational influences in explaining others' behaviors.Scapegoat Theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame, often in the context of group conflict.

ap psych review

Developmental Psychology<ul><li>Ainsworth’s attachment and strange situation experiment </li><li>Piaget’s stages of development</li><li>Baumrind’’s parental types</li><li>Primary and secondary sex characteristics</li><li>Kohlberg’s morality development</li><li>Erikson’s stages of development</li><li>Harlow’s monkeys</li><li>The development of gender roles</li><li>Changes in the focus of developmental psychology</li><li>Self-concept</li><li>Social identity</li></ul>Social<ul><li>Obedience</li><li>Halo effect</li><li>Social facilitation</li><li>Mere-exposure effect</li><li>Superordinate goals</li><li>In-group bias</li><li>Self-fulfilling prophecy</li><li>Attraction</li><li>Lucifer effect</li><li>Bystander effect</li><li>Conformity</li><li>Social loafing</li><li>Normative social influence</li><li>Cognitive dissonance</li><li>Individualistic vs. collective cultures</li><li>Out-group bias</li><li>Fundamental Attribution Error</li><li>Scapegoat theory</li></ul>/Motivation, Emotion, & Personality<ul><li>The theories of emotion</li><li>Freud’s defense mechanisms</li><li>Theories of personality</li><li>Maslow’s hierarchy of needs</li><li>Big Five Factor traits</li><li>Freud’s views on disorder</li><li>Carol Rogers’ views on humanistic psychology</li><li>Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation</li><li>Neurotransmitters involved with motivation</li><li>General Adaptation Syndrome</li><li>Arousal theory</li><li>The effects of meditation

Motivation, Emotion, & Personality

### Theories of Emotion Theories of emotion aim to understand how emotions arise, their components, and their impact on behavior. Key theories include the James-Lange Theory, which posits that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience; the Cannon-Bard Theory, suggesting that emotional responses occur simultaneously with physiological reactions; and Schachter-Singer Theory, which emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in interpreting physiological changes to experience emotion.

Freud’s Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud proposed mechanisms by which individuals deal with anxiety and stress, often unconsciously. Key defense mechanisms include repression (pushing unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious), denial (refusing to accept reality), projection (attributing one's own unacceptable qualities to others), and rationalization (justifying behaviors by providing reasonable-sounding explanations).

Theories of Personality

Various theories exist to explain personality development, including:

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud): Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
Humanistic Theory (Rogers and Maslow): Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, stressing that individuals have inherent worth.
Trait Theory: Suggests that personality traits are stable characteristics that influence behavior across various situations, assessed through measures like the Big Five personality traits.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed a pyramid of human needs, ranging from basic physiological needs (food, water, shelter) at the base to self-actualization (realizing potential) at the top. The hierarchy suggests that lower-level needs must be satisfied before individuals can focus on higher-level psychological and self-fulfillment needs.

Big Five Factor Traits

The Big Five model outlines five broad dimensions of personality:

Openness: Creativity and willingness to try new things.
Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, and work ethic.
Extraversion: Sociability and positive emotionality.
Agreeableness: Compassion and cooperativeness.
Neuroticism: Tendency towards emotional instability and negative emotions.

Freud’s Views on Disorder

Freud viewed psychological disorders as manifestations of inner conflicts, often stemming from repressed memories and desires. He emphasized the importance of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in the development of mental health issues.

Carol Rogers’ Views on Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers, a key figure in humanistic psychology, emphasized the importance of an individual's subjective experience. He introduced concepts such as unconditional positive regard, believing that a nurturing environment is crucial for self-actualization and personal growth.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation can be intrinsic (driven by internal rewards, like personal satisfaction) or extrinsic (influenced by external rewards, such as recognition or money). Understanding these forms of motivation helps in fields such as education and work performance.

### Neurotransmitters Involved with Motivation Several neurotransmitters play crucial roles in motivation, including:

Dopamine: Associated with reward and pleasure, influencing the motivation to engage in particular behaviors.
Serotonin: Impacts mood and emotional regulation, affecting overall motivation levels.
Norepinephrine: Related to arousal and alertness, playing a role in the motivation to act in response to challenges.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describes the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress, divided into three stages: alarm (initial response), resistance (adaptation to stressor), and exhaustion (depletion of resources leading to potential health issues).

Arousal Theory

Arousal Theory posits that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies from person to person. This theory explains why people engage in behaviors that increase or decrease arousal, such as seeking thrill or relaxation.

The Effects of Meditation

Meditation has been shown to have significant effects on mental health and emotional regulation, including reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. It can enhance self-awareness, improve focus, and promote overall psychological well-being, evidenced by changes in brain structure and function associated with regular practice.</li></ul>Clinical <ul><li>Symptoms and cause of chronic and acute schizophrenia</li><li>SSRIs</li><li>Antipsychotic drugs</li><li>Illness anxiety disorder (Hypochondriasis)</li><li>Phobias</li><li>Conversion and somatic symptom disorders</li><li>Side effects of antipsychotics</li><li>Types of therapy</li><li>Antisocial personality disorder</li><li>Narcissistic personality disorder</li><li>Depression</li><li>Client-centered therapy</li><li>Rumination</li><li>Avoidant personality disorder

Clinical Psychology

### Symptoms and Causes of Chronic and Acute Schizophrenia

Chronic Schizophrenia: Characterized by long-term symptoms including hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and impaired functioning. Symptoms can be persistent and may evolve over time.
Acute Schizophrenia: Often presents suddenly, featuring more intense symptoms that may be triggered by stress or trauma. It might include a brief psychotic episode, which can lead to a complete recovery or progression to chronic schizophrenia.
Causes: The etiology of schizophrenia is complex and multifactorial, involving genetic predisposition, neurochemical imbalances (especially dopamine), brain abnormalities, and environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to infections or psycho-social stressors.

SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)

SSRIs are commonly prescribed antidepressants that increase the levels of serotonin in the brain by inhibiting its reuptake in the synaptic cleft. They are effective in treating major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and certain personality disorders. Common SSRIs include fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), and escitalopram (Lexapro).

Antipsychotic Drugs

Antipsychotics are used to manage symptoms of psychosis including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. They primarily work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain. There are two main types:
- Typical Antipsychotics (e.g., haloperidol, chlorpromazine) mainly target dopamine D2 receptors.
- Atypical Antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine) affect both dopamine and serotonin receptors, often leading to a broader range of treatment efficacy and fewer side effects.

Illness Anxiety Disorder (Hypochondriasis)

This disorder refers to the preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness. Individuals typically misinterpret bodily sensations or minor symptoms as indicative of severe diseases. Treatment options often involve cognitive-behavioral therapy and, in some cases, medications such as SSRIs.

Phobias

Phobias are intense, irrational fears of specific objects, situations, or activities that lead to avoidance behavior. There are two primary categories:
- Specific Phobias: Focused on particular things like heights, spiders, or flying.
- Social Anxiety Disorder: Involves fear of social situations and potential judgment from others. Treatments often include exposure therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

Conversion Disorder: Characterized by neurological symptoms (such as paralysis or tremors) that cannot be explained by medical findings. Symptoms are often triggered by stress or trauma.
Somatic Symptom Disorder: Involves an intense focus on physical symptoms (pain or fatigue) that causes significant distress or impairment. Those suffering often feel that their health is poor despite medical evaluations showing no underlying condition.

Side Effects of Antipsychotics

Common side effects include weight gain, diabetes risk, sedation, and extrapyramidal symptoms (such as tremors and rigidity). Atypical antipsychotics have a favorable side effect profile compared to typical ones but can still lead to metabolic syndrome issues.

Types of Therapy

Therapy modalities vary widely, including:
- Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Effective for anxiety and depressive disorders, focusing on changing negative thought patterns.
- Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): Particularly effective for borderline personality disorder, it integrates mindfulness and behavioral techniques. - Exposure Therapy: Used primarily for phobias and PTSD, this involves gradual exposure to feared stimuli in a controlled manner.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. Individuals often display deceitfulness, impulsivity, irritability, and lack of remorse for actions. Treatment is challenging and may focus on managing symptoms rather than cure.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Individuals exhibit grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. These traits can affect interpersonal relationships and lead to conflicts. Therapeutic approaches may include psychodynamic therapy and cognitive-behavioral strategies aimed at increasing awareness and empathy.

Depression

Characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities. Major depressive disorder can be episodic and affect daily functioning. Treatment typically involves psychotherapy, medications (like SSRIs), and lifestyle changes.

Client-Centered Therapy

Developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic approach emphasizes creating a supportive environment where clients can explore their feelings and thoughts. Key principles include unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuine relationship between therapist and client.

Rumination

The process of continuously thinking about the same thoughts, which are often sad or dark. It can exacerbate depression and anxiety disorders, and therapy may focus on developing skills to redirect thoughts and foster adaptive coping mechanisms.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Involves a pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation. Individuals may want social connection but fear rejection, leading to avoidance of social interactions. Treatments can include CBT, support groups, and sometimes medications to alleviate anxiety symptoms.</li></ul><h4 collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Developmental Psychology</h4>Ainsworth’s Attachment and Strange Situation Experiment: Ainsworth classified attachment styles into secure, avoidant, and anxious-resistant attachments based on her Strange Situation experiment, which observed how infants reacted to separation and reunion with their caregivers. Securely attached infants showed distress when separated but were quickly comforted upon reunion. Avoidant infants were indifferent to separation and avoided their caregivers upon return, while anxious-resistant infants displayed intense distress and ambivalence upon reunion.Piaget’s Stages of Development: Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four stages: Sensory-Motor (0-2 years), where infants learn through sensory experiences; Preoperational (2-7 years), characterized by symbolic play but lacking logical reasoning; Concrete Operational (7-11 years), where logical thought begins in concrete situations; and Formal Operational (12 years and up), marked by the ability to think abstractly and systematically.Baumrind’s Parental Types: Diana Baumrind identified three primary parenting styles: authoritative (high responsiveness and high demands), authoritarian (low responsiveness and high demands), and permissive (high responsiveness and low demands). Each style influences children's behavior and social competence differently.Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics: Primary sex characteristics are directly related to reproduction, including internal organs (ovaries and testes) and external genitalia. Secondary sex characteristics, like breast development in females and facial hair in males, emerge during puberty and are not directly involved in reproduction.Kohlberg’s Morality Development: Lawrence Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral reasoning develops in stages: preconventional (obedience and punishment orientation), conventional (social norms), and postconventional (abstract principles). Each stage represents a different level of moral complexity.Erikson’s Stages of Development: Erik Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that serves as a turning point in development, such as Trust vs. Mistrust during infancy and Integrity vs. Despair during late adulthood.Harlow’s Monkeys: Harry Harlow's experiments with rhesus monkeys demonstrated the importance of caregiving and companionship in social and cognitive development, showing that infant monkeys preferred the comfort of a soft surrogate mother over the one providing food, highlighting the need for emotional security.The Development of Gender Roles: Gender roles are societal norms dictating the appropriate behaviors for individuals based on their gender, influenced by cultural, social, and biological factors, and can evolve over a person's life span, reflecting changes in societal expectations and individual experiences.Changes in the Focus of Developmental Psychology: Over time, the focus has shifted from a primarily child-centered understanding of development to a lifespan perspective, recognizing that development occurs across all stages of life and is influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors.Self-Concept: Self-concept refers to the beliefs and perceptions one holds about themselves, influencing behavior and interactions. It develops through social experiences and feedback from others.Social Identity: Social identity is derived from group memberships, influencing self-esteem and behavior. It focuses on how individuals categorize themselves and others, and how those categorizations affect interactions and perceptions.<h4 collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Social</h4>Obedience: The tendency to follow orders from an authority figure, as exemplified by Milgram's experiment on compliance.Halo Effect: A cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait leads to the perception of other positive traits in the same individual.Social Facilitation: The tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others compared to when alone.Mere-Exposure Effect: A psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.Superordinate Goals: Goals that require cooperation between multiple groups, often reducing intergroup conflict and fostering unity.In-group Bias: The tendency to favor one's own group over others, often leading to discrimination against out-groups.Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that causes itself to become true due to the behavior it generates, often seen in social contexts.Attraction: Factors that lead to interpersonal attraction include physical appearance, proximity, similarity, and reciprocity of liking.Lucifer Effect: The concept that situational and systemic forces can transform ordinary individuals into perpetrators of evil behaviors.Bystander Effect: A social psychological phenomenon wherein individuals are less likely to offer help in emergencies when others are present.Conformity: The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, more likely in ambiguous situations.Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively in a group than when working alone.Normative Social Influence: Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval from others.Cognitive Dissonance: The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs or values, prompting a change in beliefs or behaviors to reduce discomfort.Individualistic vs. Collective Cultures: Individualistic cultures emphasize personal goals and self-reliance, while collective cultures value group goals and relationships.Out-group Bias: The tendency to view out-group members as homogenous and less favorable than in-group members.Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate dispositional influences and underestimate situational influences in explaining others' behaviors.Scapegoat Theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame, often in the context of group conflict.

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