Final Exam Study Guide - Quizlet/Knowt Notes

Chapter 7 Notes:

Deviance: the violation of cultural norms and expectations

Deviance is most accurately defined as behavior that: Does not conform to social norms.

Characteristics of deviance: Deviance is socially constructed, Acts may be deviant in one time and place but not in others, A group or status may be defined as deviant, Deviance is not inherently negative

Stigma: the shame attached to a behavior or status that is considered socially unacceptable or discrediting

Consensus crimes: members of society agree about the seriousness of the deviant acts

Conflict crimes: members of society disagree about the seriousness of the acts, and/or the law disadvantages a particular group

Normalization: shift in cultural norms in which previous deviant behaviors become accepted as conventional

Positive Deviance: behaviors that depart from the norm that have a positive impact

Examples of Positive Deviance: heroes

Over-conformity: following cultural expectations excessively to the point of deviance

Labeling Theory and Differential Association Theory are types of: Symbolic Interactionist Theories

Labeling Theory means: Individuals and behavior become deviant because they are labeled as such and societies define behaviors as deviant (primary or secondary deviance) and impose sanctions

Primary deviance: isolated, actors are not labeled deviant

What is an example of Primary Deviance?: arrests for marijuana possession.

Secondary deviance: ongoing, actors are labeled deviant

Being labeled deviant reinforces: deviant behavior

Those with less power and status are more likely to be labeled as: deviant, which links to conflict theory

Differential Association Theory focuses on: how we learn deviant and criminal behavior from others

Criminal behavior is reinforced or learned from: associating with others who engage in crime and have criminal values

The possibility of becoming deviant depends on: duration, intensity, priority, and frequency of time spent with deviant others

Structural-Functionalism Theory - Deviance: Deviance can be functional, playing a positive social and societal role

Deviance helps society because it sets examples of: unacceptable behavior

Deviance helps society because it encourages: behavior necessary to maintain society

Deviance helps society because it binds: people together through common rejection of deviant behavior

Deviance helps society because it provides: work for those who deal with deviants

Deviance helps society because it signals social: problems that need to be addressed and thereby creates positive change

Deviance helps society because it opens society to: creative new ways of thinking

Sociologist associated with Structural-Functionalism Theory - Deviance: Émile Durkheim

Social Control: the incentives and punishments that promote conformity in social life

Merton’s Strain Theory: the frustration resulting from the gap between socially shared goals and access to legitimate methods of achieving those goals

Merton’s Strain Theory - Conformity: Accepting means and accepting goals

Merton’s Strain Theory - Innovation: Rejecting means and accepting goals

Merton’s Strain Theory - Ritualism: Accepting means and rejecting goals

Merton’s Strain Theory - Retreatism: Rejecting means and rejecting goals

Merton’s Strain Theory - Rebellion: Nonconformity, Replacing goals and replacing means

Prisons serve many functionalist purposes: Revenge or retribution, Removing dangerous people from society, Deterrence, Rehabilitation

Recidivism: doing something bad or illegal again after having been punished or after having stopped a certain behavior

Chapter 8 Notes:

Commodification: a social construct that involves turning parts of societal or national culture like identity and language into a service or good that can be purchased.

An example of Commodification: an American couple traveling to a Latin American country as a tourist and buying locally made, traditional souvenirs

Commodity fetishism: a process in which social relations between individual members of society are deemphasized and the relationships between commodities are seen as more important overall.

An example of commodity fetishism would be when: people in society highly covet expensive luxury brands like Louis Vuitton

Product placement is when: brands pay for their products to be incorporated into mass media programming through audiovisual methods.

An example of product placement would be when: characters in a sitcom or TV show are eating a name-brand of food like Doritos or Frosted Flakes and the name on the box or bag is facing the camera.

Stealth Advertising is: a type of advertising where brands promote their product in a subtler or disguised way. It can also be when an advertisement for a product appears to be a natural interaction.

An example of Stealth Advertising: an influencer markets a brand they are sponsored by in a social media post or video and says that the particular product is their favorite.

Behavioral Targeting: a marketing method where people’s unique actions taken throughout a day are utilized by companies, so that the companies are better able to advertise their products or messages.

An example of Behavioral Targeting: a company advertises baby formula on someone’s social media feed or shows them posts relating to baby formula after the person already searched up baby formula online or searched up what to do after delivering a baby online.

Chapter 9/10 Notes:

Conflict between classes exist because: Workers organize labor (unions) to improve wages and conditions. Capitalist maximize profits by minimizing costs, including labor costs, paying less than value of labor.

(Marx Conflict Theory) This system will last until: Exploitation results in unsustainable gap between rich and poor, resulting in replacing capitalism with socialism.

Marx’s Conflict Theory described two economic classes: the Bourgeoisie (Capitalist) Class and Proletariat (Working) Class

Capitalist Class: bourgeoisie, control capital

Working Class: proletariat, survive on wages

Petite Bourgeoisie (small business owners): Neither generate profits from labor or earn wages. Over time, large capitalist will consume small businesses.

Max Weber’s Life Chances: the likelihood a person has of obtaining valued economic and cultural resources.

Weber emphasized the interaction between the Three Dimensions of Inequality: Class, Social Status, Political Power

How does Weber define class?: a group of people have similar capacity to earn income and pursue similar lifestyle

Davis and Moore Thesis: Some positions are more highly valued because people feel they are very important.

Rewards for these positions are high because: society must motivate talented individuals to undertake the necessary but difficult preparation for them.

Differential rewards for positions result in: unequal distribution of resources; stratification is inevitable

Class mobility: the ability to move from one social class to another.

Structural mobility: mobility occurs because a shift in available occupations changes the class system as a whole.

Individual mobility: mobility occurs when a person’s class position changes without any change in the larger class structure

Conspicuous Consumption: lavish spending done to

compete for status.

Cultural capital: Social assets such as education, intellect, style of speech, and style of dress that promote social mobility.Ex: a college degree.

Social capital:the network of social connections that exist between people, and their shared values and norms of behavior. Ex: A neighborhood

Social Closure: An exclusive social place

What is an example of social closure?: a country club

Wealth: the value of financial assets such as savings, real estate, stocks, and bonds, minus any outstanding debts

Income: money received from sources such as wages and salaries, as well as from the interest, dividends, and rent generated by wealth

What are the 4 socioeconomic classes?: Capitalist, Middle Class, Working Class, Underclass

Capitalists: Most earnings are from Investments and/or Inherited Wealth

Middle Class: contributes specialized knowledge and expertise to the economy

Working Class: makes a product or service for hourly wage

Underclass: chronic underemployment or non-employment, including those on public assistance or in the underground economy

Absolute poverty: not having sufficient resources to meet basic survival needs.

Relative poverty: lack of basic resources needed to maintain a standard of living considered acceptable in a particular society.

Example of relative poverty: Emily works, however her family is homeless and she ski[d meals to make sure that there is enough food for her children.

Poverty Line: a measure of scarcity

How is the Poverty Line measured?: Using 3 times the cost of food, however it undercounts the number of poor (5x is more accurate)

Poverty Rate: Percentage of population that falls below the poverty level

The Davis and Moore Thesis mainly states: Some positions are more highly valued because people feel they are very important

Differential rewards for positions result in unequal distribution of resources; stratification is inevitable.

What’s an example of a misconception of poverty?: People believing the majority of poor people are black, which is false (2/3 are White).

What’s an example of a misconception of poverty?: The Poor do not/will not work

Meritocracy and Ideology that Justifies Inequality: a system in which people are rewarded and are able to advance because of their abilities,

Meritocracy: Everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed. Success is based on merit. People can achieve success through individual

ability and hard work.

Progressive taxes: higher incomes pay higher taxes

Regressive taxes: tax rate decreases as the amount increases (negatively affects lower incomes)

Examples of Public Assistance are:

Tax credits, payments and benefits. Also welfare for the poor shifted from cash to benefits.

GINI Coefficient: a measure of income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale, in which 1 represents complete equality and 100 represents the highest possible inequality

Chapter 11 Notes:

Race: category of people widely perceived as sharing socially significant physical characteristics such as skin color or

continental ancestry.

Racial categories are defined in part by the government as: White (Caucasian), Black, Asian, Native American

Ethnicity: A group of people with a common cultural identification, based on a common ancestry, homeland, language, religion, ancestral origin, or traditional practices

Examples of ethnicity: Italian, Jamaican, Irish, Mexican

Racial Ethnicity: An ethnic group perceived to

share physical characteristics

Example of Racial Ethnicity: Using the terms African American (ethnic) and Black (racial) interchangeably.

In the 18th century, scientist Carolus Linnaeus put forth four race categories: Europeans, Americanus, Asiaticus, Africanus.

Racial essentialism: the ideology that natural and immutable differences separate the races.

Racial essentialism is used to describe: racial inferiority and superiority, thus justifying discriminatory treatment.

Thomas Theorem: If people believe something is real, it is real in its consequences (“truth”).

Miscegenation: marriage or sexual relations between

members of different ethnic groups; usually describes

minority/majority reproduction

Amalgamation: process by which majority and minority

group blend to form a new group

Example of Amalgamation: White Americans usually consist of multiple European ethnicities

Assimilation: forced or chosen social and cultural

merging of groups in which minority members may lose

their original identity.

Segregation: keeping distinct social groups physically

and socially separate and unequal.

Genocide: systematic effort by the dominant group to

destroy a minority group.

Pluralism: each group maintains its culture and

institutions but has recognized equity in society.

Examples of minority reactions to majority domination: Withdrawal, Passing, Code-switching, Resistance

Withdrawal: physically escaping oppression

Passing: blending in with the dominant group

Code-switching: complying with the social expectations of the majority while maintaining an authentic identity

Resistance: active assertion in defiance of discrimination

Model Minority: Minority groups that achieved high levels of educational and financial success, often used to describe Asian Americans.

Prejudice: attitudes that pre-judge a group, usually negatively, with inadequate information. Beliefs and attitudes.

Discrimination: unequal treatment that advantages one group over another based on categories. Actions and behaviors.

Stereotyping: exaggerated, distorted generalizations about categories of people.

Racism: an institutional arrangement that favors one racial group over others, with intentional and unintentional consequences for minority groups.

While anyone can be prejudiced, racism requires: power and prejudice

Ideological racism: justification of discrimination using pseudo-scientific ideas

Symbolic racism: opposition to policy that would make real equality possible, often by people claiming not to be racist

Examples of symbolic racism: Southern strategy – Lee Atwater: bussing, ‘get tough’ CJ policies, protecting jobs

Institutional racism: discrimination hidden within social systems

Purposeful (de jure) discrimination: built into the law or explicit organizational policies

Unintentional (de facto) discrimination: results from policies that have unanticipated consequences favoring one group over another

Side-effect discrimination: practices in one institutional area that have a negative impact due to links to other areas.

Past-in-present discrimination: practices from the past that may no longer be allowed today but continue to affect people anyway.

Immigration Post-Immigration and Nationality Act (1965): end quotas for European immigrants; increased immigration from Asia and Africa

Remittances: foreign workers send money back home

DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals): protected status for individuals brought to US as children but no path to citizenship

Split Labor Market Theory: conflicts emerge when ethnic/racial groups compete for jobs.

The labor market has two levels: The primary market and secondary market

Primary market: “good” jobs

Secondary market: “bad” jobs

Scapegoating: Individual or group falsely blamed for a negative situation.

Strict affirmative action: affirmative or positive steps to prevent unintended discrimination

Preference policies: based on the belief that due to institutional discrimination, sometimes people must be treated differently in order to be treated fairly

Color-blind racism: promotion of race neutrality when it actually helps to maintain existing racial and ethnic inequality

Allport’s Contact Hypothesis is that prejudice between different groups will reduce if: contact is sustained (must be across the

institutions of society), it involves groups with equal status, it involves groups that share common goals, it is sanctioned by societal institutions

Chapter 12 Notes:

Gender: a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female

Sex: a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females

Gender roles: commonly assigned tasks or expected behaviors linked to sex

Examples of gender roles: activities, aspirations

Gender expression: the communication of a person’s gender identity to others through behaviors

Gender comportment: mannerism

Gender display: appearance

Sexual scripts: gender-based verbal expectations

Gender rules are: historical and contextual

Intersexed: persons with ambiguous genitalia, such that sex is difficult to assign

Transgender: the identity of someone who is challenging or changing the gender they were assigned at birth

Androgynous: neither a exclusively masculine nor exclusively feminine in gender roles or expression

Sex is a major organizing: principle in most societies.

Sex is a basis for: stratification in most societies.

Sexuality: how culture shapes the meanings of our experiences with our own bodies and in relation to others; it is socially constructed

Homophobia: intense fear and hatred of homosexuality and homosexuals

Heteronormativity: the expectation that people will be sexually attracted to members of the other sex; attitudes and behaviors that privilege heterosexuality

Examples of the pressures of heteronormativity: Coming Out – “straight” people do not have to announce their sexual orientation and calculate who to tell and who to hide it from based on consequences.

Sexism: the ideology that one sex is superior to the other

Patriarchy: a few men dominate all others, including women, children, less powerful men

Class, race, and gender intersect in a way that: privileges some women over others, though most women are still subordinate to most men

Despite class, race, and gender intersections, women are a “minority group” subject to: stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

Feminism actively advocates: change to the social order to eliminate patriarchy

1st Wave of Feminism: Suffrage, citizenship

2nd Wave of Feminism: Ending legal discrimination; Right to Work; Reproductive rights

3rd Wave of Feminism: Intersectionality of sexuality, class, and race; Reproductive health care access

The wage gap is described as: women making 85% of what men make

The Wage Gap is caused by: Gendered work patterns

Most of the reason for the wage gap is not due to overt discrimination but: gender role socialization

Occupational Segregation: Fields of study and professions are gender separated

Example of Occupational Segregation: Men are more likely to major in business and STEM fields and women more likely to major in liberal arts

Female-dominated careers pay: less than male-dominated professions

Motherhood Penalty: Working mothers encounter systematic disadvantages in pay, perceived competence, and lose experience, raises and promotions due to leaving work, working part-time or trading income for flexible jobs

Fatherhood Bonus: Experience a boost in salary and status compared to childless men

A reason for the Fatherhood Bonus: (Female) partners perform unpaid family labor, allowing more time for income earning.

Allocative Discrimination occurs when: Sex segregation may cause the earnings gap because women are systematically allocated to jobs that pay less than the jobs to which men are allocated

Example of Allocative Discrimination: Men are concentrated as principals and high school teachers; women are concentrated as early elementary teachers.

Valuative Discrimination: Less pay earned in predominately female occupations and more pay earned in predominately male occupations even though they have similar levels of skill and training.

Example of Valuative Discrimination: When men clean for a living (janitors, butlers) they earn more than women (maids, housekeeper)

Feminization of Poverty: Single parenthood and lower wages earned by women account for why the majority of the poor are women and their children.

Stratification systems all have: Unequal distribution of valued resources.

The following characterizes stratification systems: There is an ideology that justifies the inequality.

Glass ceiling: social forces that keep women from reaching the highest levels of corporate and public responsibility

The capitalist class disproportionately consists of: men

Second Shift: the phenomenon of employed women still having primary responsibility for housework and childcare

Sexual Harassment: Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature.

Quid Pro Quo Harassment: The condition of employment benefits on an employee's submission to unwelcome sexual conduct

What percent of human trafficking (slavery) victims are female?: 80%

Intimate Partner Violence: A pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner

Sexual Assault and Rape is more pervasive on: college campuses and military (US) and in war (globally)

The term sexual assault refers to: sexual contact or behavior that occurs without explicit consent of the victim.

Domestic violence: violence between household or family members, specifically spouses

Human trafficking involves: the use of force, fraud, or coercion to obtain some type of labor or commercial sex act

Semi-Periphery countries: Countries that provide cheap, semi-skilled labor, basic infrastructure and economy, and an emerging consumer market

Chapter 13 Notes:

In 100 years, global life expectancy has: doubled

Life expectancy: the number of years a newborn is expected to live

Aging is *blank* influenced: culturally

Cultural attitudes about aging influence: longevity and quality of life

Example of a positive cultural attitude about aging: The elderly are seen as necessary as opposed to a burden

Aging is more difficult in the US as the US is: a more youth-oriented and work-oriented society

Physical and material challenges of aging: Health and financial challenges

Gender Age: the value of aging placed on gender

Women’s aging is viewed: more negatively than men’s aging

Symbolic Interaction Theory - Aging: The institutions of society interact with the elderly in a way that determines whether the elderly are valued or seen as a burden

Media Aspect of Symbolic Interaction Theory - Aging: Representations of the elderly as feeble, marginally important, cranky, bothersome, or absent reflect negative attitudes of social value

Society determines when someone is old, not: chronological age

Structural Functionalist Theory - Aging: the elderly have important roles in society

The roles of the elderly include to: Pass on knowledge, history, traditions, Play vital roles in social institutions and organization (caregivers, financial support, community leaders), Provide work for younger generation

Activity Theory: Retirement provides the opportunity to explore new interests and activities (volunteerism, leisure, careers)

What years were Baby Boomers born in-between?: 1945-1965

Conflict Theory - Aging: Where the elderly economically contribute, they are valued highly in the society (pre-industrial China and agrarian Georgia)

Disengagement Theory: Retirement decreases social prestige due to lack of purpose (“job”) and contribution (productivity, profits, taxes).

In places where the elderly are seen as a burden due to caregiving needs, it lowers: social prestige

208 million American workers pay taxes into Social Security for: 57 million retired and disabled

Dependency ratios: the contrast of how many people contribute to the labor force and how many people depend on those laborers

Social Security: a government-run retirement program funded primarily through payroll taxes

Why do economists warn that the Social Security system will collapse by the year 2037?: the aging boomer cohort is starting to receive Social Security benefits and fewer workers are paying into the Social Security trust fund

What are some quality of life concerns for the elderly?: Declining health, Poverty, Elder Abuse, Death

Below replacement levels describe: population decreases since there are fewer births than deaths. The trend of birth rates in wealthy countries. More people use social security than pay tax into it.